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WIKIMAG n. 11 - Ottobre 2013
Asbestos
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Asbestos
(pronounced
//
or
//)
is a set of six naturally occurring
silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical
properties.[1]
They all have in common their
eponymous
asbestiform habit: long (ca. 1:20 aspect ratio), thin
fibrous
crystals.
The prolonged
inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious illnesses[2]
including malignant
lung cancer,
mesothelioma, and
asbestosis (a type of
pneumoconiosis).[3]
The trade and use of asbestos have been restricted or banned in many
jurisdictions.
Asbestos became increasingly popular among manufacturers and builders
in the late 19th century because of its sound absorption, average
tensile strength, its
resistance to fire, heat, electrical and chemical damage, and
affordability. It was used in such applications as
electrical insulation for hotplate wiring and in
building insulation. When asbestos is used for its resistance to
fire or heat, the fibers are often mixed with cement (resulting in
fiber cement) or woven into fabric or mats.
Asbestos
mining began more than 4,000 years ago, but did not start large-scale
until the end of the 19th century. For a long time, the world's largest
asbestos mine was the Jeffrey mine in the town of
Asbestos, Quebec.[4]
Types and
associated fibers
Six minerals types are defined by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency as "asbestos"
including those belonging to the serpentine class and those belonging to
the amphibole class. All six asbestos mineral types are known to be
human
carcinogens.[5][6]
Serpentine
Serpentine class fibers are curly.
Chrysotile is the only member of the serpentine class.
Chrysotile
Chrysotile,
CAS No. 12001-29-5, is obtained from
serpentinite rocks which are common throughout the world. Its
idealized
chemical formula is
Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4.[7]
Chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber.
Chrysotile has been used more than any other type and accounts for
about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America.[8]
Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos, and can be
spun and woven into fabric. Its most common use has been in corrugated
asbestos cement roof sheets typically used for outbuildings, warehouses
and garages. It may also be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings
and sometimes for walls and floors. Chrysotile has been a component in
joint compound and some plasters. Numerous other items have been
made containing chrysotile, including brake linings, fire barriers in
fuseboxes, pipe insulation, floor tiles, and rope seals for boilers.[citation
needed] .
Amphibole
Amphibole class fibers are needle-like.
Amosite,
crocidolite,
tremolite,
anthophyllite and
actinolite are members of the amphibole class.
Amosite
Amosite, CAS No. 12172-73-5, often referred to as brown asbestos, is
a
trade name for the amphiboles belonging to the
cummingtonite-grunerite
solid solution series, commonly from South Africa, named as an
acronym
for "Asbestos Mines of South Africa". One formula given for amosite is
Fe7Si8O22(OH)2.
Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber. It is
found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation
products,
asbestos insulating board and ceiling tiles.[8]
Crocidolite
Crocidolite, CAS No. 12001-28-4, is the fibrous form of the
amphibole
riebeckite, found primarily in southern Africa, but also in
Australia and Bolivia. One formula given for crocidolite is
Na2Fe2+3Fe3+2Si8O22(OH)2.
Crocidolite is seen under a microscope as a blue fiber.
Crocidolite commonly occurs as soft
friable fibers. Asbestiform amphibole may also occur as soft friable
fibers but some varieties such as amosite are commonly straighter. All
forms of asbestos are fibrillar in that they are composed of fibers with
breadths less than 1
micrometer that occur in bundles and have very great widths.
Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as
"amianthus".
Other materials
Other regulated asbestos minerals, such as tremolite asbestos, CAS
No. 77536-68-6,
Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2;
actinolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-66-4, Ca2(Mg, Fe)5(Si8O22)(OH)2;
and anthophyllite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-67-5, (Mg, Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2;
are less commonly used industrially but can still be found in a variety
of construction materials and insulation materials and have been
reported in the past to occur in a few
consumer products.
Size of asbestos fibers compared to other particles (USEPA,
March, 1978
Other natural and not currently regulated asbestiform minerals, such
as
richterite, Na(CaNa)(Mg, Fe++)5(Si8O22)(OH)2,
and
winchite, (CaNa)Mg4(Al, Fe3+)(Si8O22)(OH)2,
are thought by some to be no less harmful than tremolite, amosite, or
crocidolite.[9]
They are referred to as "asbestiform" rather than asbestos. Although the
U.S. OSHA has not included them in the asbestos standard, NIOSH and the
American Thoracic Society have recommended that they be included as
regulated materials. As such, they may still be related to diseases and
hazardous.[9]
Producing nations
In 2009, 2 million
tonnes of
asbestos were mined worldwide. The Russian Federation was the largest
producer with about 50% world share followed by China (14%), Brazil
(12.5%), Kazakhstan (10.5%) and Canada (9%).[10]
In late 2011, Canada's remaining two asbestos mines, both located in
the
Province of Quebec, halted operations.[11]
In September 2012, the newly elected government in the Province of
Quebec followed through with an election promise to halt asbestos
mining.[12]
History
Early uses
Asbestos use in human culture dates back at least 4,500 years, when
evidence shows that inhabitants of the Lake
Juojärvi region in East
Finland
strengthened earthenware pots and cooking utensils with the asbestos
mineral anthophyllite.[13]
The word asbestos comes from the
ancient Greek ἄσβεστος, meaning "unquenchable" or
"inextinguishable".[1][14]
One of the first descriptions of a material that may have been asbestos
is in
Theophrastus, On Stones, from around 300 BC, although this
identification has been questioned.[15]
The naming of minerals was not very consistent in ancient times.[citation
needed] In both modern and ancient
Greek, the usual name for the material known in English as
"asbestos" is amiantos ("undefiled", "pure") whence the term for
it in, e.g., French amiante. In
modern Greek, the word ἀσβεστος or ασβέστης stands consistently and
solely for
lime.[citation
needed]
The term asbestos is traceable to Roman naturalist
Pliny the Elder's manuscript
Natural History, and his use of the term asbestinon,
meaning "unquenchable".[1][13][14]
While Pliny is popularly credited with recognising the detrimental
effects of asbestos on human beings,[16]
examination of the primary sources reveals no support for that claim.[17]
Wealthy
Persians amazed guests by cleaning a cloth by exposing it to fire.[when?]
For example, according to
Tabari, one of the curious items belonging to
Khosrow II Parviz, the great
Sassanian king (r. 531–579), was a napkin that he cleaned simply by
throwing it into fire. Such cloth is believed to have been made of
asbestos imported over the
Hindu Kush.[18]
According to
Biruni in his book, Gems, any cloths made of asbestos (Persian:
آذرشست,
āzarshost) were called shostakeh (Persian:
شستكه).[19]
Some Persians[who?][when?]
believed the fiber was the fur of an animal, called the
samandar (Persian:
سمندر),
which lived in fire and died when exposed to water,[20][better source needed][21]
whence the former belief[by
whom?] that the
salamander could tolerate fire.[citation
needed]
Charlemagne, the first
Holy Roman Emperor (800–814), is said[by
whom?] to have had a tablecloth made of asbestos.[22]
Marco Polo recounts having been shown, in a place he calls
Ghinghin talas, "a good vein from which the cloth which we call of
salamander, which cannot be burnt if it is thrown into the fire, is
made ..."[23]
Some archeologists[who?]
believe that ancients made shrouds of asbestos, wherein they burned the
bodies of their kings, in order to preserve only their ashes, and
prevent their being mixed with those of wood or other combustible
materials commonly used in funeral pyres.[24][page needed][unreliable
source?] Others[who?]
assert that the ancients used asbestos to make perpetual wicks for
sepulchral or other lamps.[20][better source needed]
In more recent centuries, asbestos was indeed used for this purpose.
Although asbestos causes skin to itch upon contact,
ancient literature indicates that it was prescribed for diseases of
the skin, and particularly for the itch. It is possible that they[who?]
used the term asbestos for
soapstone, because the two terms have often been confused throughout
history.[24][page needed][unreliable
source?]
Industrial era
The U.S. asbestos industry began in 1858 when fibrous anthophyllite
was mined for use as asbestos insulation by the Johns Company, a
predecessor to the current Johns Manville at a quarry at Ward's Hill on
Staten Island, New York.[25]
Asbestos became more widespread during the industrial revolution; in
1866 it was used as insulation in the U.S. and Canada. Development of
the first commercial asbestos mine began in 1874 in the
Appalachian foothills of
Quebec.[26]
By the mid 20th century uses included fire retardant coatings, concrete,
bricks, pipes and fireplace cement, heat, fire, and acid resistant
gaskets, pipe insulation, ceiling insulation, fireproof drywall,
flooring, roofing, lawn furniture, and drywall joint compound.
In Japan, particularly after
World War II, asbestos was used in the manufacture of
ammonium sulfate for purposes of rice production, sprayed upon the
ceilings, iron skeletons, and walls of railroad cars and buildings
(during the 1960s), and used for energy efficiency reasons as well.
Production of asbestos in Japan peaked in 1974 and went through ups and
downs until about 1990, when production began to drop severely.[27]
Discovery of
toxicity
- For additional chronological citations, see also,
List of asbestos disease medical articles
The first documented death related to asbestos was in 1906.[citation
needed] In the early 1900s researchers began to
notice a large number of early deaths and lung problems in asbestos
mining towns. The first diagnosis of asbestosis was made in the UK in
1924. By the 1930s, the UK regulated ventilation and made asbestosis an
excusable work-related disease, followed by the U.S about ten years
later.[7]
The term mesothelioma was first used in medical literature in 1931; its
association with asbestos was first noted sometime in the 1940s.
Approximately 100,000 people in the United States have died, or are
terminally ill, from asbestos exposure related to ship building. In the
Hampton Roads area, a shipbuilding center, mesothelioma occurrence
is seven times the national rate.[28]
Thousands of tons of asbestos were used in World War II ships to wrap
the pipes, line the boilers, and cover engine and turbine parts. There
were approximately 4.3 million shipyard workers in the United States
during WWII; for every thousand workers about fourteen died of
mesothelioma and an unknown number died from asbestosis.[29]
The United States government and asbestos industry have been
criticized for not acting quickly enough to inform the public of
dangers, and to reduce public exposure. In the late 1970s court
documents proved that asbestos industry officials knew of asbestos
dangers since the 1930s and had concealed them from the public.[29]
In Australia, asbestos was widely used in construction and other
industries between 1945 and 1980. From the 1970s there was increasing
concern about the dangers of asbestos, and its use was phased out.
Mining ceased in 1983. The use of asbestos was phased out in 1989 and
banned entirely in December 2003. The dangers of asbestos are now well
known in Australia and there is help and support for sufferers from
asbestosis or mesothelioma.[30]
Specific products
Serpentine group
Serpentine minerals have a sheet or layered structure. Chrysotile is
the only asbestos mineral in the serpentine group. In the United States,
chrysotile has been the most commonly used type of asbestos. According
to the U.S. EPA Asbestos Building Inspectors Manual, chrysotile accounts
for approximately 95% of asbestos found in buildings in the United
States.[citation
needed] Chrysotile is often present in a wide
variety of products and materials, including:
- Chlor Alkali diaphragm membranes used to make chlorine
(currently in the USA)
[1]
-
Drywall and joint compound
-
Plaster
- Gas mask filters pre 1960s
- Mud and texture coats
- Vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesives
- Roofing tars, felts, siding, and shingles[31]
- "Transite"
panels, siding, countertops, and pipes
-
Popcorn ceilings, also known as acoustic ceilings
-
Fireproofing
-
Caulk
- Industrial and Marine
Gaskets,
including those made by
Garlock Sealing Technologies
- Packing, a system for
sealing a rotating shaft
- Brake
pads and shoes
- Stage curtains
- Fire blankets
- Interior fire doors
- Fireproof clothing for firefighters
- Thermal pipe insulation
- Filters for removing fine particulates from chemicals, liquids
and wine
- Dental cast linings
- HVAC flexible duct connectors
-
Drilling fluid additives
A household heat spreader for cooking on gas stoves, made of
asbestos (probably 1950s; "Amiante pur" is French for "Pure
Asbestos")
In the European Union and Australia it has recently been banned as a
potential health hazard[32]
and is not used at all. Japan is moving in the same direction, but more
slowly.
Amphibole group
Amphiboles including
amosite (brown asbestos) and
crocidolite (blue asbestos) were formerly used in many products
until the early 1980s.[citation
needed]
Tremolite asbestos constituted a contaminant of many if not all
naturally occurring chrysotile deposits. The use of all types of
asbestos in the amphibole group was banned in much of the Western world
by the mid-1980s, and in Japan by 1995.[citation
needed] Some products that included amphibole types
of asbestos included the following:
- Low density insulating board (often referred to as AIB or
asbestos insulating board) and ceiling tiles;
- Asbestos-cement pipe (made until the early 1990s by at least one
manufacturer);
-
Asbestos-cement sheets and pipes for construction, casing for
water and electrical/telecommunication services;
- Thermal and chemical insulation (e.g., fire rated doors,
limpet spray, lagging and gaskets).
Cigarette manufacturer
Lorillard (Kent's
filtered cigarette) used crocidolite asbestos in its "Micronite"
filter from 1952 to 1956.[33]
While mostly chrysotile asbestos fibers were once used in automobile
brake pads, shoes, and
clutch
discs, contaminants of amphiboles were present. Since approximately
the mid-1990s, brake pads, new or replacement, have been manufactured
instead with linings made of ceramic, carbon, metallic and
aramid
fiber (Twaron
or Kevlar—the
same material used in
bulletproof vests).
Artificial Christmas snow, known as flocking, was previously made
with asbestos.[34]
Health problems
All types of asbestos fibers are known to cause serious health
hazards in humans.[35][36][37]
While it is agreed that amosite and crocidolite are the most hazardous
asbestos fiber types, chrysotile asbestos has produced tumors in animals
and is a recognized cause of asbestosis and malignant mesothelioma in
humans.[38]
Mesotheliomas have been observed in people who were occupationally
exposed to chrysotile, family members of the occupationally exposed, and
residents who lived close to asbestos factories and mines.[39]
According to the NCI, "A history of asbestos exposure at work is
reported in about 70 percent to 80 percent of all cases. However,
mesothelioma has been reported in some individuals without any known
exposure to asbestos."[40]
The most common diseases associated with chronic exposure to asbestos
include: asbestosis and pleural abnormalities (mesothelioma, lung
cancer).[41]
Asbestosis has been reported primarily in asbestos workers, and appears
to require long-term exposure, high concentration for the development of
the clinical disease. There is also a long latency period (incubation
period of an infectious disease, before symptoms appear) of about 12 to
20 years.[42]
Studies have shown an increased risk of lung cancer among
smokers who are exposed to asbestos compared to nonsmokers.[43]
Asbestos exposure becomes a health concern when high concentrations
of asbestos fibers are inhaled over a long time period.[44]
People who become ill from inhaling asbestos are often those who are
exposed on a day-to-day basis in a job where they worked directly with
the material. As a person's exposure to fibers increases, because of
being exposed to higher concentrations of fibers and/or by being exposed
for a longer time, then that person's risk of disease also increases.
Disease is very unlikely to result from a single, high-level exposure,
or from a short period of exposure to lower levels.[44]
Possible mechanisms of carcinogenicity
Stanton and Layard hypothesized in 1977–78 that toxicity of fibrous
materials is not initiated by chemical effects;[45]
that is, any trigger-effects of asbestos must presumably be physical,
such as (A) mechanical damage or (B) unwanted signal channels
(a plausible property for slender transparent fibres) which might
disrupt normal cell activity—especially
mitosis.
(A) Mechanical Damage. There is experimental evidence that very slim
fibers (<60 nm, <0.06 μm in breadth) do tangle destructively with
chromosomes (being of comparable size).[46][47]
This is likely to cause the sort of mitosis disruption expected in
cancer.
(B) Unwanted Signal channels. This has recently been explored
theoretically, but not yet experimentally. The theory argues that this
effect would only be feasible for asbestos fibers >100 nm in breadth
(>150 nm in the case of chrysotile), which suggests that we should be on
the look-out for a possible mixture of different mechanisms for the
different fiber-diameter-ranges.[48][49]
One popular idea of the causal chain is (1) Asbestos fiber → → (3)
inflammation → (4) other pathology. While that may be true, it does
not explain "(2), the actual trigger":
- "What is the physical property of asbestos which
initiates any such inflammation?" (After all, inflammation is
usually seen as caused by chemical-based processes:
immunological &/or bacterial). So inflammation (&/or oxidation etc.)
may well be part of the causal chain, but not the crucial first
step.[48]
Other
asbestos-related diseases
- It is important to consult a doctor, particularly if the
following symptoms develop: shortness of breath, wheezing or
hoarseness, persistent cough that worsens over time, blood in fluid
coughed up, pain or tightening in chest, difficulty swallowing,
swelling of neck or face, decreased appetite, weight loss, fatigue
or
anemia.[50]
- Asbestosis: Progressive fibrosis of the lungs of varying
severity, progressing to bilateral fibrosis, honeycombing of the
lungs on radiological view with symptoms including rales and
wheezing. Individuals who have been exposed to asbestos via home,
environment, work should notify their doctors about exposure
history.
- Asbestos warts: caused when the sharp fibers lodge in the
skin and are overgrown causing benign
callus-like
growths.
- Pleural plaques: discrete fibrous or partially calcified
thickened area which can be seen on
X-rays
of individuals exposed to asbestos. Although pleural plaques are
themselves asymptomatic, in some patients this develops into pleural
thickening.
- Diffuse pleural thickening: similar to above and can
sometimes be associated with asbestosis. Usually no symptoms shown
but if exposure is extensive, it can cause
lung
impairment.
-
Pneumothorax: Some reports have also linked the condition of
pneumothorax to asbestos related diseases.
Chemistry
Asbestos fibers ( SEM
micrograph)
Individual asbestos fibers are invisible to the unaided
human
eye because their size is about 3–20 µm wide and can be as slim as
0.01 µm.
Human hair ranges in size from 17 to 181 µm in breadth.[51]
Fibers ultimately form because when these minerals originally cooled and
crystallized, they formed by the polymeric molecules lining up parallel
with each other and forming oriented
crystal lattices. These crystals thus have three
cleavage planes, and in this case, there are two cleavage planes
which are much weaker than the third. When sufficient force is applied,
they tend to break along their weakest directions, resulting in a linear
fragmentation pattern and hence a fibrous form. This fracture process
can keep occurring and one larger asbestos fiber can ultimately become
the source of hundreds of much thinner and smaller fibers.
When fibers or asbestos structures from asbestos containing
materials(ACM) become airborne, the process is called primary release.
Primary release mechanisms include
abrasion,
impaction, fallout, air
erosion,
vibration, and fire damage. Secondary release occurs when settled
asbestos fibers and structures are resuspended as a result of human
activities. In unoccupied buildings or during unoccupied periods, fiber
release typically occurs by fallout or is induced by vibration or air
erosion.[52]
Friability of a product containing asbestos means that it is so soft
and weak in structure that it can be broken with simple finger crushing
pressure. Friable materials are of the most initial concern because of
their ease of damage. The forces or conditions of usage that come into
intimate contact with most non-friable materials containing asbestos are
substantially higher than finger pressure.
Identification and assessment
A fiber cannot be identified or ruled out as asbestos, either using
the naked eye or by simply looking at a fiber under a regular
microscope. The most common methods of identifying asbestos fibers are
by using
polarized light microscopy (PLM) or
transmission electron microscopy (TEM). PLM is less expensive, but
TEM is more precise and can be used at lower concentrations of asbestos.
If asbestos abatement is performed, completion of the abatement is
verified using visual confirmation and may also involve air sampling.
Air samples are typically analyzed using
phase contrast microscopy (PCM). PCM involves counting fibers on a
filter using a microscope. Airborne occupational exposure limits for
asbestos are based on using the PCM method.
The
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists has a
recommended Threshold Limit Value (TLV) for asbestos of 0.1 fibers/mL
over an 8 hour shift. OSHA in the United States and occupational health
and safety regulatory jurisdictions in Canada use 0.1 fibers/mL over an
8 hour shift as their exposure limits.[53]
Common building materials containing asbestos
Most products manufactured today do not contain asbestos. In the
industrialized world, asbestos was phased out of building products
mostly in the 1970s with most of the remainder phased out by the 1980s.
Asbestos containing building materials in residences includes a variety
of products, such as: stiple used in textured walls and ceilings;
drywall joint filler compound; asbestos contaminated
vermiculite,
vinyl floor tile; vinyl sheet flooring; window
putty;
mastic;
cement board; furnace tape; and
stucco.
Asbestos was used a lot in roofing materials, mainly corrugated asbestos
cement roof sheets and asbestos shingles. Other sources of asbestos
containing materials include
fireproofing and
acoustic materials.[54]
Exposure
Asbestos exposure becomes an issue if asbestos containing materials
become airborne, such as due to deterioration or damage. Building
occupants may be exposed to asbestos, but those most at risk are persons
who purposely disturb materials, such as maintenance or construction
workers. Housekeeping or custodial employees may be at an increased risk
as they may potentially clean up damaged or deteriorated asbestos
containing materials without knowing that the material contains
asbestos. Asbestos abatement or remediation workers and emergency
personnel such as firefighters may also become exposed.[55]
Asbestos-related diseases have been diagnosed in asbestos workers'
family members, and in residents who live close to asbestos mines or
processing plants.[56]
Environmental
asbestos
Asbestos can be found naturally in the air outdoors and in some
drinkable water, including water from natural sources.[57]
Studies have shown that members of the general (non-occupationally
exposed) population have 10,000-999,999 asbestos fibers in each gram of
dry lung tissue, which translates into millions of fibers and tens of
thousands of asbestos bodies in every person's lungs.[58]
Asbestos from natural geologic deposits is known as "naturally
occurring asbestos" (NOA). Health risks associated with exposure to NOA
are not yet fully understood, and current US federal regulations do not
address exposure from NOA. Many populated areas are in proximity to
shallow, natural deposits which occur in 50 of 58 California counties
and in 19 other U.S. states. In one study, data was collected from 3,000
mesothelioma patients in California and 890 men with
prostate cancer, a malignancy not known to be related to asbestos.
The study found a correlation between the incidence of mesotheliomas and
the distance a patient lived from known deposits of rock likely to
include asbestos; the correlation was not present when the incidence of
prostate cancer was compared with the same distances. According to the
study, risk of mesothelioma declined by 6% for every 10 km that an
individual had lived away from a likely asbestos source.[59]
Portions of
El Dorado County, California are known to contain natural amphibole
asbestos formations at the surface.[59][60]
The
USGS studied amphiboles in rock and soil in the area in response to
an EPA sampling study and subsequent criticism of the EPA study. The EPA
study was refuted by its own peer reviewers and never completed or
published. The study found that many amphibole particles in the area
meet the counting rule criteria used by the EPA for chemical and
morphological limits, but do not meet morphological requirements for
commercial-grade-asbestos. The executive summary pointed out that even
particles that do not meet requirements for commercial-grade-asbestos
may be a health threat and suggested a collaborative research effort to
assess health risks associated with "Naturally Occurring Asbestos."
However, the main criticism pointed at EPA was that their testing was
conducted in small isolated areas of El Dorado where there were no
amphibole asbestos deposits, thus the language regarding amphibole,
nonfibrous "particles". Actual surface amphibole deposits in residential
areas were ignored for testing purposes. Because of this, no final
findings were published by ATSDR.[61]
A great deal of
Fairfax County, Virginia was also found to be underlaid with
tremolite. The county monitored air quality at construction sites,
controlled soil taken from affected areas, and required freshly
developed sites to lay 6 inches (150 mm) of clean, stable material over
the ground.[59]
Globally, collected samples from Antarctic ice indicate chrysotile
asbestos has been a ubiquitous contaminant of the environment for at
least 10,000 years. Snow samples in Japan have shown ambient background
levels are one to two orders of magnitude higher in urban than in rural
areas. Higher concentrations of airborne asbestos fibers are reported in
urban areas where there is more ACM (asbestos containing materials) and
mechanisms of release (vehicles braking and weathering of asbestos
cement materials); concentrations in the range of 1–20 ng/m^3 have been
reported. Fibers longer than 5μm are rarely found in rural areas.
Ambient concentrations using
TEM analysis have been based on mass measurements.[52]
History of health concerns and regulation
For additional chronological citations, see also,
List of asbestos disease medical articles
Until 1900
By the first century AD, Greeks and Romans are claimed to have
observed that slaves involved in the weaving of asbestos cloth were
afflicted with a sickness of the lungs,[62]
although this is not confirmed by examination of primary sources.[17]
Early concern in the modern era on the health effects of asbestos
exposure can be found in several sources. Among the earliest were
reports in Britain. The annual reports of the Chief Inspector of
Factories reported as early as 1898 that asbestos had "easily
demonstrated" health risks.[63]
At about the same time, what was probably the first study of
mortality among asbestos workers was reported in France.[64]
While the study describes the cause of death as
chalicosis, a generalized pneumoconiosis, the circumstances of the
employment of the fifty workers whose death prompted the study suggest
that the root cause was asbestos or mixed asbestos-cotton dust exposure.
1900s–1910s
Further awareness of asbestos-related diseases can be found in the
early 1900s, when London doctor H. Montague Murray conducted a post
mortem exam on a young asbestos factory worker who died in 1899. Dr.
Murray gave testimony on this death in connection with an industrial
disease compensation hearing. The post-mortem confirmed the presence of
asbestos in the lung tissue, prompting Dr. Murray to express as an
expert opinion his belief that the inhalation of asbestos dust had at
least contributed to, if not actually caused, the death of the worker.[65]
The record in the United States was similar. Early observations were
largely anecdotal in nature and did not definitively link the occupation
with the disease, followed by more compelling and larger studies that
strengthened the association. One such study, published in 1918, noted:
- All of these processes unquestionably involve a considerable
dust hazard, but the hygienic aspects of the industry have not been
reported upon. It may be said, in conclusion, that in the practice
of American and Canadian
life insurance companies, asbestos workers are generally
declined on account of the assumed health-injurious conditions of
the industry.[66]
1920s–1930s
Widespread recognition of the occupational risks of asbestos in
Britain was reported in 1924 by a Dr. Cooke, a pathologist, who
introduced a case description of a 33-year-old female asbestos worker,
Nellie Kershaw, with the following: "Medical men in areas where
asbestos is manufactured have long suspected the dust to be the cause of
chronic bronchitis and fibrosis ..."[67]
Dr. Cooke then went on to report on a case in 1927 involving a
33-year-old male worker who was the only survivor out of ten workers in
an asbestos
carding
room. In the report he named the disease "asbestosis".[68]
Dr. Cooke's second case report was followed, in the late 1920s, by a
large public health investigation (now known as the Merewether report
after one of its two authors) that examined some 360 asbestos-textile
workers (reported to be about 15% of the total comparable employment in
Britain at the time) and found that about a quarter of them suffered
from pulmonary fibrosis.[69]
This investigation resulted in improved regulation of the manufacturing
of asbestos-containing products in the early 1930s. Regulations included
industrial hygiene standards, medical examinations, and inclusion of the
asbestos industry into the British Workers' Compensation Act.[70]
The first known U.S. workers' compensation claim for asbestos disease
was in 1927.[71]
In 1930, the first reported autopsy of an asbestosis sufferer was
conducted in the United States and later presented by a doctor at the
Mayo Clinic, although in this case the exposure involved mining
activities somewhere in South America.[72]
In 1930, the major asbestos company Johns-Manville produced a report,
for internal company use only, about medical reports of asbestos worker
fatalities.[73]
In 1932, a letter from U.S. Bureau of Mines to asbestos manufacturer
Eagle-Picher stated, in relevant part, "It is now known that
asbestos dust is one of the most dangerous dusts to which man is
exposed."[74]
In 1933, Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. doctors found that 29% of
workers in a Johns-Manville plant had asbestosis.[73]
Likewise, in 1933, Johns-Manville officials settled lawsuits by 11
employees with asbestosis on the condition that the employees' lawyer
agree to never again "directly or indirectly participate in the bringing
of new actions against the Corporation."[74]
In 1934, officials of two large asbestos companies, Johns-Manville and
Raybestos-Manhattan, edited an article about the diseases of asbestos
workers written by a Metropolitan Life Insurance Company doctor. The
changes downplayed the danger of asbestos dust.[74]
In 1935, officials of Johns-Manville and Raybestos-Manhattan instructed
the editor of Asbestos magazine to publish nothing about
asbestosis.[74]
In 1936, a group of asbestos companies agreed to sponsor research on the
health effects of asbestos dust, but required that the companies
maintain complete control over the disclosure of the results.[73]
1940s
In 1942, an internal Owens-Corning corporate memo referred to
"medical literature on asbestosis ... scores of publications in which
the lung and skin hazards of asbestos are discussed."[73]
Testimony given in a federal court in 1984 by Charles H. Roemer,
formerly an employee of Unarco, described a meeting in the early 1940s
between Unarco officials, J-M President
Lewis H. Brown and J-M attorney Vandiver Brown. Roemer stated, "I'll
never forget, I turned to Mr. Brown, one of the Browns made this crack
(that Unarco managers were a bunch of fools for notifying employees who
had asbestosis), and I said, 'Mr. Brown, do you mean to tell me you
would let them work until they dropped dead?' He said, 'Yes. We save a
lot of money that way.'"[75]
In 1944, a Metropolitan Life Insurance Company report found 42 cases of
asbestosis among 195 asbestos miners.[73]
1950s
In 1951, asbestos companies removed all references to cancer before
allowing publication of research they sponsored.[76]
In 1952, Dr. Kenneth Smith, Johns-Manville medical director, recommended
(unsuccessfully) that warning labels be attached to products containing
asbestos. Later, Smith testified: "It was a business decision as far as
I could understand ... the corporation is in business to provide jobs
for people and make money for stockholders and they had to take into
consideration the effects of everything they did and if the application
of a caution label identifying a product as hazardous would cut into
sales, there would be serious financial implications."[77]
In 1953, National Gypsum's safety director wrote to the Indiana
Division of Industrial Hygiene, recommending that
acoustic plaster mixers wear respirators "because of the asbestos
used in the product." Another company official noted that the letter was
"full of dynamite" and urged that it be retrieved before reaching its
destination. A memo in the files noted that the company "succeeded in
stopping" the letter, which "will be modified."[78]
1960s–1980s
Through the 1970s, asbestos was used to fireproof roofing and
flooring, for heat insulation, and for a variety of other purposes. The
material was used in fire-check partitioning and doors on North Sea Oil
Production Platforms and Rigs.
During mid-to late 1980s, public health concern focused on potential
asbestos fiber exposures of building occupants and workers in buildings
containing asbestos containing building materials (ACBM) and their risks
of developing lung cancer or mesothelioma. As a consequence, the Health
Effects Institute (Cambridge, MA) convened a panel to evaluate the
lifetime cancer risk of general building occupants as well as service
workers.[79]
Modern regulation
United States
Researcher using a fiber length classifier to produce
length-selected fibers of asbestos for toxological studies.
In 1981, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
requested information from American companies regarding the asbestos
content of their products.[80]
In 1989 the EPA issued the Asbestos Ban and Phase Out Rule which was
subsequently overturned in the case of Corrosion Proof Fittings v.
EPA, 947 F.2d 1201 (5th Cir. 1991). This ruling leaves many consumer
products that can still legally contain trace amounts of asbestos. For a
clarification of products which legally contain asbestos, read the EPA's
clarification statement.[81]
In 2010, Washington State banned asbestos in automotive brakes
starting in 2014.[82]
The EPA has proposed a concentration limit of seven million fibers
per liter of drinking water for long fibers (lengths greater than or
equal to 5 µm). The
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), has set limits
of 100,000 fibers with lengths greater than or equal to 5 µm per cubic
meter of workplace air for eight-hour shifts and 40-hour work weeks.[83]
OSHA regulations regarding asbestos are covered in 29 C.F.R.
1926.1101. Such work is divided into four categories.
Class I asbestos work means activities involving the removal of TSI
and surfacing asbestos containing materials (ACM) and presumed asbestos
containing materials (PACM).
Class II asbestos work means activities involving the removal of ACM
which is not thermal system insulation or surfacing material. This
includes, but is not limited to, the removal of asbestos-containing
wallboard, floor tile and sheeting, roofing and siding shingles, and
construction mastics.
Class III asbestos work means repair and maintenance operations,
where "ACM", including TSI and surfacing ACM and PACM, is likely to be
disturbed.
Class IV asbestos work means maintenance and custodial activities
during which employees contact but do not disturb ACM or PACM and
activities to clean up dust, waste and debris resulting from Class I,
II, and III activities.[84]
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, blue and brown asbestos materials were banned
outright in 1985 while the import, sale and second hand reuse of white
asbestos was outlawed in 1999. The 2012 Control of Asbestos Regulations
state that owners of non-domestic buildings (e.g., factories and
offices) have a "duty to manage" asbestos on the premises by making
themselves aware of its presence and ensuring the material does not
deteriorate, removing it if necessary. Employers, e.g. construction
companies, whose operatives may come into contact with asbestos must
also provide annual asbestos training to their workers[85]
New Zealand
In 1984, the import of raw amphibole (blue and brown) asbestos into
New Zealand was banned. In 2002 the import of chrysotile (white)
asbestos was banned.[86]
Australia
The use of crocidolite (blue) asbestos was banned in 1967, while the
use of amosite (brown) asbestos continued in the construction industry
until the mid-1980s. It was finally banned from building products in
1989, though it remained in gaskets and brake linings until 31 December
2003, and cannot be imported, used or recycled.[87][88]
Asbestos continues to be a problem. Two out of three homes in
Australia built between World War II and the early 1980s still contain
asbestos.[89]
The union that represents workers tasked with modifying electrical
meter boxes at residences stated that workers should refuse to do this
work until the boxes have been inspected for asbestos[90]
and the head of an Australian Consortium of Trade Unions has called on
the government to protect its citizens by ridding the country of
asbestos by 2030.[91]
Handlers of asbestos materials must have a B-Class license for bonded
asbestos and an A-Class license for friable asbestos.
The town of
Wittenoom, in Western Australia was built around a (blue) asbestos
mine. The entire town continues to be contaminated, and has been
disincorporated, allowing local authorities to remove references to
Wittenoom from maps and roadsigns.
Turkey
A complete ban on asbestos in Turkey went into effect in 2011.[92]
Japan
Revelations that hundreds of workers had died in Japan over the
previous few decades from diseases related to asbestos sparked a scandal
in mid-2005.[93]
Tokyo had, in 1971, ordered companies handling asbestos to install
ventilators and check health on a regular basis; however, the Japanese
government did not ban crocidolite and amosite until 1995, and a
full-fledged ban on asbestos was implemented in October 2004.[93]
South Korea
In May 1997, the manufacture and use of
crocidolite and
amosite, commonly known as blue and brown asbestos, were fully
banned in
South Korea.[94]
In January 2009, a full-fledged ban on all types of asbestos occurred
when the government banned the manufacture, import, sale, storage,
transport or use of asbestos or any substance containing more than 0.1%
of asbestos.[95]
In 2011, South Korea became the world's sixth country to enact an
asbestos harm aid act, which entitles any Korean citizen to free
lifetime medical care as well as monthly income from the government if
he or she is diagnosed with an asbestos-related disease.[96]
Singapore
Use of all types of asbestos has been banned in Singapore since 1989.
Contamination of other products
Asbestos and
vermiculite
Vermiculite is a hydrated laminar magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate
which resembles
mica. It can be used for many industrial applications and has been
used as insulation. Some deposits of vermiculite have been found to be
contaminated with small amounts of asbestos.[97]
One vermiculite mine operated by
W. R. Grace and Company in
Libby, Montana exposed workers and community residents to danger by
mining vermiculite contaminated with asbestos, typically
actinolite or
tremolite. Vermiculite contaminated with asbestos from the Libby
mine was used as insulation in residential and commercial buildings
through Canada and the United States.
W. R. Grace and Company's vermiculite was marketed as
Zonolite.
In 1999 the EPA began cleanup efforts in Libby and now the area is a
Superfund cleanup area.[98]
The EPA has determined that harmful asbestos is released from the mine
as well as through other activities that disturb soil in the area.[99]
Asbestos and talc
Talc is
sometimes contaminated with asbestos.[100]
In 2000, tests in a certified asbestos-testing laboratory found the
tremolite form of amphibole asbestos in three out of eight bigger brands
of children's
crayons
that are made partly from talc:
Crayola,
Prang, and RoseArt.[101]
In Crayola crayons, the tests found asbestos levels from 0.05% in
Carnation Pink to 2.86% in Orchid; in Prang crayons, the
range was from 0.3% in Periwinkle to 0.54% in Yellow; in
Rose Art crayons, it was from 0.03% in Brown to 1.20% in
Orange. Overall, 32 different types of crayons from these brands
contained more than trace amounts of asbestos, and eight others
contained trace amounts. The
Art and Creative Materials Institute, a
trade association which tests the safety of crayons on behalf of the
makers, initially insisted the test results must be incorrect, although
they later said they do not test for asbestos.[101]
In May 2000, Crayola said tests by a materials analyst, Richard Lee,
whose testimony has been accepted in lawsuits over 250 times on behalf
of the asbestos industry, showed two of its crayons were negative for
asbestos.[102]
In June 2000, Binney & Smith, the maker of Crayola, and the other makers
agreed to stop using talc in their products, and changed their product
formulations in the United States.[102]
The mining company, R T Vanderbilt Co of
Gouverneur, New York, which supplied the talc to the crayon makers,
insists there is no asbestos in its talc "to the best of our knowledge
and belief",[103]
but a news article claimed that the United States Mine Safety and Health
Administration (MSHA) did find asbestos in four talc samples that it
tested in 2000.[101]
At the time, however, the Assistant Secretary for Mine Safety and Health
informed the news reporter that his article was in error and that the
reporter had misquoted him stating that "In fact, the abbreviation ND
(non detect) in the laboratory report – indicates no asbestos fibers
actually were found in the samples."[104]
Further supporting the claim of Vanderbilt that asbestos is not found in
this industrial grade talc (composed of a very complex mineral mixture)
is a decades old record of analytical work that does not find asbestos
in this talc by mineral scientists in academia, government and contract
laboratories.[105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113]
Human, animal and cell health studies conducted on Vanderbilt's
controversial talc also lend no support for the presence of asbestos in
this talc.[114][115][116]
Several non fully peer-reviewed health reports concerning Vanderbilt
talc do exist and suggest a "same as" asbestos risk, some of which were
referenced in the previously cited news articles.[117][118]
Asbestos in
construction
Asbestos construction in developed countries
Older decorative ceilings, like this one, often contain
small amounts of
white asbestos.
1929 newspaper advertisement from Perth, Western Australia,
for
asbestos sheeting for residential building construction.
The use of asbestos in new construction projects has been banned for
health and safety reasons in many developed countries or regions,
including the European Union, Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, and New
Zealand. A notable exception is the United States, where asbestos
continues to be used in construction such as cement asbestos pipes. The
5th Circuit Court prevented the EPA from banning asbestos in 1991
because EPA research showed the ban would cost between $450 and 800
million while only saving around 200 lives in a 13-year timeframe, and
that the EPA did not provide adequate evidence for the safety of
alternative products.[119]
Until the mid-1980s, small amounts of white asbestos were used in the
manufacture of
Artex, a
decorative stipple finish,[120]
however, some of the lesser-known suppliers of Artex were still adding
white asbestos until 1999.[121]
Removing or disturbing Artex is not recommended, as it may contain white
asbestos.
Prior to the ban, asbestos was widely used in the construction
industry in thousands of materials, some are judged to be more dangerous
than others due to the amount of asbestos and a materials friable
nature. Sprayed coatings, pipe insulation and Asbestos Insulating Board
(AIB) are thought to be the most dangerous due to their high content of
asbestos and friable nature. Many older buildings built before the late
1990s contain asbestos. In the United States, there is a minimum
standard for asbestos surveys as described by
ASTM Standard E 2356–04. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
includes some but not all asbestos-contaminated facilities on the
Superfund National Priorities list (NPL). Renovation and demolition of
asbestos contaminated buildings is subject to EPA
NESHAP and OSHA Regulations. Asbestos is not a material covered
under
CERCLA's innocent purchaser defense. In the UK, the removal and
disposal of asbestos and of substances containing it are covered by the
Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006.[122]
In older buildings (e.g. those built prior to 1999 in the UK, before
white asbestos was finally banned), asbestos may still be present in
some areas e.g. old bath panels, concrete
water tanks and many other places. Being aware of asbestos locations
reduces the risk of disturbing asbestos.[123]
See the
asbestos image gallery (external link) to see some common asbestos
locations.
Removal of asbestos building components can also remove the fire
protection they provide, therefore fire protection substitutes are
required for proper fire protection that the asbestos originally
provided.[123][124]
Asbestos construction in developing countries
Some countries, such as
India,
Indonesia, China, Russia and Brazil have continued widespread use of
asbestos. The most common is corrugated asbestos-cement sheets or "A/C
Sheets" for roofing and for side walls. Millions of homes, factories,
schools or sheds and shelters continue to use asbestos. Cutting these
sheets to size and drilling holes to receive 'J' bolts to help secure
the sheets to roof framing is done on-site. There has been no
significant change in production and use of A/C Sheets in
developing countries following the widespread restrictions in
developed nations[citation
needed].
Asbestos and 9/11
As the towers collapsed, Lower Manhattan was blanketed in a mixture
of building debris and combustible materials. This complex mixture gave
rise to the concern that thousands of residents and workers in the area
would be exposed to known hazards in the air and in the dust, such as
asbestos, lead, glass fibers, and pulverized concrete.[125]
More than 1,000 tons of asbestos are thought to have been released into
the air during the destruction of the
World Trade Center in New York on
9/11.[126]
Inhalation of a mixture of asbestos and other
toxicants is thought to be linked to the unusually high death rate
of emergency service workers from cancer since the disaster.[126]
Many thousands more are now thought to be at risk of developing cancer
due to this exposure with those who have died so far being only the 'tip
of the iceberg'.[126]
Some commentators have criticised authorities for using asbestos in the
Towers' construction (see 'Other criticism' below).
In May 2002, after numerous cleanup, dust collection, and air
monitoring activities were conducted outdoors by EPA, other federal
agencies, New York City and New York State, New York City formally
requested federal assistance to clean and/or test residences in the
vicinity of the WTC site for airborne asbestos.[125]
Litigation
Asbestos litigation is the longest, most expensive mass
tort in
U.S. history, involving more than 8,400 defendants and 730,000
claimants as of 2002 according to the
RAND Corporation,[127]
and at least one defendant reported claim counts in excess of $800,000
in 2006.[128]
As of 1999, trends indicate that the worldwide rate at which people
are diagnosed with asbestos-related diseases will likely increase
through the next decade.[129][130]
Analysts have estimated that the total costs of asbestos litigation in
the USA alone is over $250 billion.[131]
The federal legal system in the United States has dealt with numerous
counts of asbestos related suits, which often included multiple
plaintiffs with similar symptoms. In 1999 there were 200,000 related
cases pending in the federal court system of the United States.[132]
Further, it is estimated that within the next 40 years, the number of
cases may increase to 700,000. These numbers help explain how there are
thousands of current pending cases.
Litigation of asbestos materials has been slow. Companies sometimes
counter saying that health issues do not currently appear in their
worker or workers, or sometimes are settled out of court.[133]
In 1999 the United States enacted the Fairness in Asbestos
Compensation Act.[134]
Between 1981 and the present, many asbestos companies have filed for
bankruptcy.[135]
While companies filed for bankruptcy, this limited payouts to those who
were actually affected by the material. Professor Christopher Edley said
what the 1999 Act ultimately would have done if passed would be to
"limit punitive damages that seek retribution for the decisions of
long-dead executives for conduct that took place decades ago (Professor
Christopher Edley, Jr.)."[134]
In Australia a significant and controversial case was brought against
the industrial building materials company
James Hardie, which had mined and sold asbestos related products for
many years.
Litigation exists outside the United States in
England,
Scotland,
Ireland,
the
Netherlands,
France,
Italy,
and Japan
among other nations (though the amounts awarded in these countries are
not as large as in the US). See the
companion article for further information.
The volume of the asbestos liability has concerned manufacturers and
insurers and reinsurers.[136]
The amounts and method of allocating compensation have been the source
of many court cases, and government attempts at resolution of existing
and future cases.
Other criticism
Asbestos regulation critics include the asbestos industry[137]
and JunkScience.com owner
Steven Milloy. Critics argue that the outright banning of dangerous
products, due to
government regulation, is inferior to keeping the products while
innovating ways to prevent the lethal effects. They argue that the
product benefits are too important to ignore, and instead of banning the
products, find ways to eliminate risks to those who work with the
products. An example is the suggestion by
Dixy Lee Ray and others that the
shuttle Challenger disintegrated because the maker of
O-ring
putty was pressured by the EPA into ceasing production of asbestos-laden
putty.[138][139]
However, the putty used in Challenger's
final flight did contain asbestos, and failures in the putty were
not responsible for the failure of the O-ring that led to loss of the
shuttle.[139][140]
Asbestos was used in the first forty floors of the World Trade Center
north tower causing an airborne contamination among lower Manhattan
after the towers collapsed in
the attacks on 11 September 2001. Steven Milloy of the Cato
Institute suggested that the World Trade Center towers could still be
standing or at least would have stood longer had a 1971 ban not stopped
the completion of the asbestos coating above the 64th floor.[141][142]
This was not considered in the
National Institute of Standards and Technology's report on the
towers' collapse. All fireproofing materials, regardless of what they
are made of, are required to obtain a
fire-resistance rating prior to installation. All fiber-based
lightweight commercial spray fireproofing materials are vulnerable to
kinetic energy impacts that are outside of the
fire
testing upon which their ratings are based, including asbestos-based
materials, and may have been removed in large areas by the impact of the
planes.[143][144][145]
Substitutes for asbestos in construction
Fiberglass insulation was invented in 1938 and is now the most
commonly used type of
insulation material. The safety of this material is also being
called into question due to similarities in material structure.[146]
However, the
International Agency for Research on Cancer removed fiberglass from
its list of possible human carcinogens in 2001.[147]
In 1978, a highly texturized fiberglass fabric was invented by
Bal
Dixit, called
Zetex. This fabric is lighter than asbestos, but offers the same
bulk, thickness, hand, feel, and abrasion resistance as asbestos. The
fiberglass was texturized to eliminate some of the problems that arise
with fiberglass, such as poor abrasion resistance and poor seam strength[148]
In Europe
mineral wool and
glass wool are the main insulators in houses.
Many companies that produced asbestos-cement products that were
reinforced with asbestos fibers have developed products incorporating
organic fibers. One such product was known as "Eternit"
and another "Everite" now use "Nutec"
fibers which consist of organic fibers,
portland cement and
silica.
Cement-bonded wood fiber is another substitute. Stone fibers are
used in gaskets and friction materials.
Another potential fiber is
polybenzimidazole or PBI fiber.
Polybenzimidazole fiber is a
synthetic fiber with high
melting point of 760 °C that also does not ignite. Because of its
exceptional thermal and chemical stability, it is often used by
fire departments and
space agencies.
Asbestos alternatives for industrial use include sleeves, rope, tape,
fabric, textiles and
insulation batt materials made from
fiberglass and silica.
Recycling and
disposal
In most developed countries, asbestos is typically disposed of as
hazardous waste in
landfill sites.
The
demolition of buildings containing large amounts of asbestos based
materials pose particular problems for builders and property developers
- such buildings often have to be deconstructed piece by piece, or the
asbestos has to be painstakingly removed before the structure can be
razed by mechanical or explosive means. One such example is the Red Road
high-rise housing development in
Glasgow,
Scotland which used huge amounts of asbestos cement board for wall
panelling - here British health and safety regulations stipulate that
asbestos material has to be removed to a landfill site via an approved
route at certain times of the day in specially adapted vehicles.
Asbestos can be recycled by transforming it into harmless
silicate glass. A process of thermal decomposition at 1000–1250 °C
produces a mixture of non-hazardous silicate phases, and at temperatures
above 1250 °C it produces silicate glass.[149]
Microwave thermal treatment can be used in an industrial manufacturing
process to transform asbestos and asbestos-containing waste into
porcelain stoneware tiles, porous single-fired wall tiles, and ceramic
bricks.[150]
See also
Mineralogy
Other
asbestos-related topics
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Bibliography
Further reading
External links
- Independent links
- Regulatory and government links
- Mineral and mining links
- Health and the environment
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