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WIKIMAG n. 8 - Luglio 2013
Crusades
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Crusades were religious conflicts in the
High Middle Ages through to the end of the
Late Middle Ages conducted by Catholic Europe against
Muslims,
pagans,
heretics,
and peoples under the ban of
excommunication. The geographic spread included the
Near
East,
Al-Andalus,
Ifriqiya,
Egypt and Eastern Europe. They are most popularly associated with
campaigns in the
Holy
Land to establish control of religious sites but also cover other
campaigns for differnt religious, economic, and political reasons such
as the
Albigensian Crusade, the
Aragonese Crusade, the
Reconquista and the
Northern Crusades
The adopted emblem was the
cross with the term "crusade" being derived from the French term for
taking up the cross.
Pope Urban II proclaimed the first crusade in 1095 with the stated
goal of restoring Christian access to the
holy places in and near
Jerusalem which led to an intermittent 200-year struggle to reclaim
the
Holy Land that ended in failure. The Crusades in the near east
formed part of long running conflicts at the frontiers of Europe
including the
Arab–Byzantine Wars, the
Byzantine–Seljuq Wars and loss of
Anatolia by the
Byzantine's after defeat by
Seljuk Turks at
Manzikert in 1071. Emperor
Alexios I sought military support from Christian nations against a
common enemy and Urban II looked to take advantage of the opportunity to
reunite the Christian church under his leadership, enlisting western
leaders in the cause.[1]
Several hundred thousand soldiers became Crusaders by taking vows;[2]
the papacy granted them
plenary indulgences. The crusaders were Christians from all over
Western Europe under
feudal rather than unified command. There were seven major Crusades
against Muslim territories in the east and numerous minor ones. Politics
were often complicated and intra-faith competition also led to alliances
between faiths against their coreligionist opponents, such as the
Christian alliance with the Islamic
Sultanate of Rûm during the
Fifth Crusade.
The Crusades had major political, economic, and social impacts on
western Europe. It resulted in a substantial weakening of the
Byzantine Empire, which fell several centuries later to the
Ottoman Empire. The
Reconquista, a long period of wars in Spain and Portugal (Iberia),
where Christian forces reconquered the peninsula from Muslims, is
closely tied to the Crusades. However, when the last Christian
stronghold in the Holy Land fell at
Acre in 1291 there was no coherent response in the east.
Background
Middle East
After 636 when Muslim forces defeated the Eastern Roman/Byzantines at
the
Battle of Yarmouk, control of Palestine passed through the
Umayyad Dynasty,[3]
the
Abbasid Dynasty
[4]
and the
Fatimids.[5]
Toleration, trade and political relationships between the Arabs and the
Christian states of Europe ebbed and flowed until 1072 when the Fatimids
lost control of Palestine to the rapidly expanding
Great Seljuq Empire.[6]
This is demonstrated by the
Fatimid Caliph
al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordering the destruction of the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre only for his successor to allow the
Byzantine Empire to rebuild it in 1036.[7]
Under the Seljuqs pilgrimages by Christians to the holy sites were
allowed, the resident Christians were considered
people of the book so tolerated as
Dhimmi
and inter-marriage was not uncommon.[8]
Cultures and creeds coexisted as much as competed but the frontier
conditions were not conducive to Latin Christian pilgrims and merchants.[9]
This underpinned the support for the Crusades across the Catholic world.[10]
The Eastern Empire and its church were officially divided from the
Western church and society in 1054, with the
East-West Schism, but cultural differences had long divided the two
before the official break in 1054.[11]
In the Byzantine Empire, the Eastern emperor's weakness was revealed by
the defeat at the
Battle of Manzikert in 1071, which opened
Anatolia to the control of the Turks.[12]
The Empire was on the verge of collapse, with its treasury bankrupt, its
armies poorly deployed, and its aged emperor ineffective.[13]
Although an appeal was made in 1074 to the papacy, no aid was
forthcoming from Pope Gregory VII.[14]
The Eastern Empire also faced difficulties in the Danube river area, as
the
Petchenegs had allied with the Seljuks and threatened the Empire
until 1091 when they were defeated by Emperor Alexius. Alexius still
needed to rebuild his armies, and sought to increase his military forces
by hiring mercenaries. The Byzantine envoys to Piacenza in March 1095
likely were more concerned to secure mercenaries for Alexius' armies and
may have exaggerated the dangers facing the Eastern Empire in order to
secure the needed troops.[15]
Western Europe
The
Norman adventurer
Robert Guiscard had conquered northern Sicily by 1072.[16]
The maritime state of
Pisa funded
its new cathedral from the spoils of two raids on the Muslims – Palermo
in 1063 and Mahdia in 1087.[14]
Not all these precursor conflicts were Christian versus Muslim; the
Germans were expanding at the expense of the
Slavs in
Northern Europe.[17]
All of these expeditions, along with a few others, are considered
precursors to the Crusades, and are often given the name of
"proto-crusades".[14]
The western European idea of the Crusades came in response to the
deterioration of the
Byzantine Empire caused by many years of
Seljuk attacks.[12]
The Byzantine emperors in the east, now threatened by the
Seljuks, sent emissaries to the papacy asking for aid in their
struggles with the Seljuk Turks. In 1074, Emperor
Michael VII sent a request for aid to Pope
Gregory VII, but although Gregory appears to have considered leading
an expedition to aid Michael, nothing reached the planning stage.[14]
In 1095 Emperor
Alexios I Komnenos asked Pope
Urban II for help against the Turks.[12]
The Crusades were, in part, an outlet for an intense religious piety
which rose up in the late 11th century among the lay public. This was an
outgrowth of the
Investiture Controversy, which had started around 1075 and was still
on-going during the First Crusade. The papacy began to assert its
independence of secular rulers and marshalled arguments for the proper
use of armed force by Christians. As both sides of the Investiture
Controversy tried to marshal public opinion in their favor, people
became personally engaged in a dramatic religious controversy. The
result was an awakening of intense Christian piety and public interest
in religious affairs, and was further strengthened by religious
propaganda, which advocated "Just
War" in order to retake Palestine from the Muslims. Taking part in
such a war was seen as a form of
penance,
which could remit sins.[18]
It was a hotly debated issue throughout the Crusades as what exactly
"remission of sin" meant. Most believed that by retaking Jerusalem they
would go straight to heaven after death. However, much controversy
surrounds exactly what was promised by the popes of the time. One theory
was that one had to die fighting for Jerusalem for the remission to
apply, which would hew more closely to what Urban II said in his
speeches. This meant that if the crusaders were successful, and retook
Jerusalem, the survivors would not be given remission.[citation
needed]
Council of
Clermont
Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, given a
late Gothic setting in this illumination from the
Livre des Passages d'Outre-mer, of c 1490 ( Bibliothèque
National)
In 1095 the
Byzantine emperor
Alexius I Comnenus sent envoys to the west requesting military
assistance against the
Seljuk Turks. The message was received by
Pope Urban II at the
Council of Piacenza. In November of that year Urban called the
Council of Clermont to discuss the matter further urging the
bishops
and abbots
whom he addressed directly, to bring with them the prominent lords in
their provinces. The Council lasted from 19 to 28 November, attended by
nearly 300 clerics from throughout
France.
Urban discussed
Cluniac reforms of the Church and extended the
excommunication of
Philip I of France. Urban spoke for the first time on 27 November
about the problems in the east, promoting Western Christians' fight
against the
Muslims who had occupied the
Holy Land and were attacking the
Eastern Roman Empire. There are six main sources of information
about this: the anonymous
Gesta Francorum ("The Deeds of the Franks" dated c. 1100/1101),[19]
which influenced all versions of the speech except that by
Fulcher of Chartres, who was present at the council;
Robert the Monk, who may have been present;
Baldric, archbishop of Dol; and
Guibert de Nogent, who were not present at the council. All the
accounts were written much later following different literary traditions
and differ widely.[20]
More important than these five sources coloured by the authors' own
views of crusading, is a letter that was written by Urban himself in
December of 1095 referring to the council.[citation
needed]
Robert the Monk in Historia Iherosolimitana written in 1106/7
reports Urban called for
orthodoxy, reform and submission to the Church. Robert records that
the pope asked
western Christians, poor and rich, to come to the aid of the
Greeks in the east because "Deus
vult," ("God wills it"). Robert records that Urban promised
remission of sins for those who went to the east, although the
'Liber Lamberti', a source based on the notes of Bishop Lambert of
Arras, who attended the Council, indicates that Urban offered the
remission of all penance due from sins, what later came to be called an
indulgence.[21]
Robert makes Urban deliver a classical battle speech; he emphasizes
reconquering the
Holy
Land more than aiding the Greeks; the intervening decades, and the
events of the
First Crusade had certainly shifted the emphasis. According to
Robert, Urban listed various gruesome offenses of the
Muslims.[22]
and more alleged atrocities expressed in inflammatory images that were
derived from
hagiography. Perhaps with the wisdom of hindsight, Robert makes
Urban advise that none but
knights
should go, not the old and feeble, nor
priests
without the permission of their bishops, "for such are more of a
hindrance than aid, more of a burden than advantage... nor ought women
to set out at all, without their husbands or brothers or legal
guardians". A later version by Baldrick, archbishop of Dol, reported the
sermon focusing on the offenses of the Muslims and the reconquest of the
Holy
Land and that Urban deplored the violence of the Christian knights
of Gaul.
The violence of knights he wanted to see ennobled in the service of
Christ, defending the churches of the East as if defending a mother.
Guibert, abbot of Nogent also made Urban emphasize the reconquest of
the Holy Land more than help to the Greeks or other Christians there.
This may, as in the case of Robert and Baldric, be due to the influence
of the Gesta Francorum's account of Jerusalem's reconquest. Urban's
speech, in Guibert's version, emphasized the sanctity of the Holy Land,
which must be in Christian possession so that
prophecies about the
end of the world could be fulfilled.[citation
needed]
A general call was sent out to the knights and nobles of France.
Urban apparently knew in advance of the day that
Raymond IV of Toulouse was prepared to take up arms. Urban himself
spent a few months preaching the Crusade in France, while
papal legates spread the word in the south of Italy, during which
time the focus presumably turned from helping Alexius to taking
Jerusalem. The general population probably understood this to be the
point of the Crusade in the first place.[citation
needed]
Urban's letter to the faithful "waiting in
Flanders," laments that Turks, in addition to ravaging the "churches
of God in the eastern regions," have seized "the Holy City of Christ,
embellished by his passion and resurrection—and blasphemy to say it—have
sold her and her churches into abominable slavery." Yet he does not
explicitly call for the reconquest of Jerusulem. Rather he explicitly
calls for the military "liberation" of the
Eastern Churches, and appoints
Adhemar of Le Puy to lead the Crusade, to set out on the day of the
Assumption of Mary, 15 August.[23]
Pope Urban's speech ranks as one of the most influential speeches ever,
launching holy wars that occupied the minds and forces of western Europe
for 200 years before ultimate failure.[24]
Anti-Semitism
On a popular level, the preaching of the First Crusade unleashed a
wave of impassioned, personally felt pious Christian fury that was
expressed in the massacres of
Jews that
accompanied and preceded the movement of the crusaders through Europe,[25]
as well as the violent treatment of the "schismatic"
Orthodox Christians of the east.[26]
Chronology
Reconquista (718-1492)
Main article:
Reconquista
The Reconquista, 790-1300
Although the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from Muslims began
around 100 years before the preaching of the First Crusade in 1095,[27]
with a notable success being the recapture of Toledo in 1085,[28]
Urban II also tied in the ongoing wars in Iberia in the preaching of the
First Crusade and the crusading effort.[27][28]
It was through a papal encyclical of 1123 by Pope
Calixtus II that these wars attained the status of crusades.[29]
After this, the papacy declared Iberian crusades in 1147, 1193, 1197,
1210, 1212, 1221 and 1229. Crusading privileges were also given to those
helping the military orders – both the traditional Templars and
Hospitallers as well as the specifically Iberian orders that were
founded and eventually merged into two main orders – that of the
Order of Calatrava and the
Order of Santiago. From 1212 to 1265, the Iberian kingdoms drove the
Muslims into the far south of the Iberian Peninsula, confining them to a
small
emirate of Granada. In 1492, this remnant was conquered and Muslims
and Jews expelled from the peninsula.[30]
People’s Crusade (1195-1196)
Urban inspired the preaching of
Peter the Hermit who eventually led perhaps as many as 20,000
people, mostly lower class, towards the Holy Land just after Easter
1096.[31]
When they reached the Byzantine Empire, Alexios urged them to wait for
the western nobles, but the "army" insisted on proceeding and was
ambushed outside Nicaea by the Turks, with only about 3000 people
escaping the ambush.[32]
First (1095–1099) and Immediate Aftermath
Route of the First Crusade through Asia
Among the leaders of the First Crusade were
Godfrey of Bouillon,
Robert Curthose,
Hugh of Vermandois and
Stephen, Count of Blois. Both the King of France and
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor were in conflict with the Papacy and
did not take part.[33]
The official crusader armies set off from France and Italy at different
times in August and September 1096 with Hugh of Vermandois departing
first and the bulk of the army dividing into four parts which travelled
separately to Constantinople.[34][35]
In all, the western forces may have totaled as much as 100,000 persons,
counting both combatants and non-combatants.[36]
The armies journeyed eastward by land toward Constantinople, where they
received a wary welcome from the Byzantine Emperor.[37]
Pledging to restore lost territories to the empire,[38]
the main army, mostly French and Norman knights under baronial
leadership—Godfrey of Bouillon,
Baldwin of Bouillon,
Tancred de Hauteville, Raymond of Toulouse, Robert Curthose, Stephen
of Blois,
Bohemond of Taranto, and
Robert II, Count of Flanders—marched south through Anatolia.[39][40]
The Crusader armies fought the Turks, at first at the lengthy
Siege of Antioch that began in October 1097 and lasted until June
1098. Once inside the city, as was standard military practice when an
enemy had refused to surrender,[41]
the Crusaders massacred the Muslim inhabitants and pillaged the city.[42]
However, a large Muslim relief army under
Kerbogha immediately besieged the victorious Crusaders within
Antioch. Bohemond of Taranto led a successful rally of the crusader army
and defeated Kerbogha's army on 28 June.[43]
Bohemond and his men retained control of Antioch,[44]
in spite of his pledge to the Byzantine emperor.[45]
Most of the surviving crusader army marched south, moving from town to
town along the coast, finally reaching the walls of Jerusalem on 7 June
1099 with only a fraction of their original forces.[44]
After the successful siege of Jerusalem in 1099,
Godfrey of Bouillon, leader of the First Crusade, became
the first ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
The Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem against the
invading Franks. They were unsuccessful though and on 15 July 1099 the
crusaders entered the city. They proceeded to massacre the remaining
Jewish and Muslim civilians and pillaged or destroyed mosques and the
city itself.[46]
As a result of the First Crusade, four main
Crusader states were created: the
County of Edessa, the
Principality of Antioch, the
County of Tripoli and
Kingdom of Jerusalem.[47]
Following this crusade there was a second, less successful wave of
crusaders, known as the
Crusade of 1101, in which Turks led by
Kilij Arslan defeated the Crusaders in three separate battles in a
response to the First Crusade.[48]
Sigurd I of Norway was the first European king who to visit the
Crusading states, as well as the first European king to take part in a
crusading campaign, although his expedition was as much pilgrimage as
crusade. His fleet helped at the
Siege of Sidon. Also in 1107, Bohemond I of Antioch attacked the
Byzantines at Avlona and Dyrrachium, in what is occasionally called
Bohemond's Crusade, which ended in September 1108 with a defeat for
Bohemond and his retiring to Italy.
Further efforts in the 1120s included a crusade preached by Pope
Calixtus II around 1120 which became the
Venetian Crusade of 1122–1124,[49]
a pilgrimage of Count
Fulk V of Anjou in 1120, an effort by
Conrad III of Germany in 1124 of which little details are known, and
the
Damascus Crusade of 1129 by Fulk V which resulted in the recognition
of the
Knights Templar by Pope
Honorius II in January 1129. Some historians have seen Pope
Innocent II's grant in 1135 of the same crusading indulgences to
those who opposed papal enemies as the first of the politically
motivated crusades against papal opponents, but other historians do not
agree.[50]
Initially, Muslims did very little about the Crusader states due to
internal conflicts.[citation
needed] Eventually, the Muslims began to reunite
under the leadership of
Imad ad-Din Zengi, who was appointed governor of
Mosul in
1127. He began to retake territory from the Christians, beginning with
Aleppo in 1128. He retook Edessa in 1144.[51]
These defeats led Pope
Eugenius III to call for another crusade on 1 March 1145.[49]
Second
(1147–1149)
Main article:
Second Crusade
Europe and the Christian States in the East in 1142
The new crusade was called for by various preachers, most notably by
Bernard of Clairvaux.[52]
French and South German armies, under the Kings
Louis VII and
Conrad III respectively, marched to Jerusalem in 1147 but failed to
win any major victories, launching a failed pre-emptive siege of
Damascus.[53]
On the other side of the Mediterranean, however, the Second Crusade met
with great success as a group of Northern European Crusaders stopped in
Portugal, allied with the
Portuguese King,
Afonso I of Portugal, and
retook Lisbon from the Muslims in 1147.[54]
A detachment from this group of crusaders helped Count
Raymond Berenguer IV of Barcelona conquer the city of
Tortosa
the following year.[55][page needed]
In the Holy Land by 1150, both the kings of France and Germany had
returned to their countries without any result. Bernard of Clairvaux,
who in his preachings had encouraged the Second Crusade, was upset with
the amount of misdirected violence and slaughter of the Jewish
population of the Rhineland.[53]
A followup to this crusade was the pilgrimage of
Henry the Lion,
Duke of Saxony, in 1172 that is sometimes labeled a crusade.[56]
Wendish
(1147-1162)
Contemporaneous with the Second Crusade,
Saxons
and
Danes fought against
Polabian Slavs in the
Wendish Crusade or
First Northern Crusade. The Wends defeated the Danes and the Saxons
did not contribute much to the crusade.[57]
The Wends did acknowledge the overlordship of the Saxon ruler,
Henry the Lion. Further crusading actions continued although no
papal bulls were issued calling new crusades.[58]
Efforts to conquer the Wends began again in 1160 under Henry the Lion,[59]
continuing until 1162, when the Wends were defeated at the
Battle of Demmin.[60]
Third
(1187–1192)
Main article:
Third Crusade
The Muslims had long fought among themselves, but they were finally
united by
Saladin, who created a single powerful state.[61]
Following his victory at the
Battle of Hattin he easily overwhelmed the disunited crusaders in
1187 and retook Jerusalem on 29 September 1187. Terms were arranged and
the city surrendered, with Saladin entering the city on 2 October 1187.[62]
Saladin's victories shocked Europe. On hearing news of the
Siege of Jerusalem (1187), Pope
Urban III died of a heart attack on 19 October 1187.[63]
On 29 October Pope
Gregory VIII issued a
papal bull
Audita tremendi, proposing the
Third Crusade. To reverse this disaster Emperor
Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1152–1190) of Germany, King
Philip II of France, (r. 1180–1223), and King
Richard I (r. 1189–1199) of England all organized forces for the
crusade. Frederick died en route and few of his men reached the Holy
Land. The other two armies arrived but were beset by political quarrels.
Philip returned to France, but left most of his forces behind. Richard
captured the island of Cyprus from the Byzantines in 1191. After
a long siege, Richard recaptured the city of
Acre. The Crusader army headed south along the Mediterranean coast.
They defeated the Muslims near
Arsuf,
recaptured the port city of
Jaffa,
and were in sight of Jerusalem, but supply problems prevented them from
taking the city and the crusade ended without the taking of Jerusalem.[56]
Richard left the following year after negotiating a treaty with Saladin.
The treaty allowed trade for merchants and unarmed Christian pilgrims to
make pilgrimages to Jerusalem, while it remained under Muslim control.[64]
Northern crusades (1193-1290)
Pope Celestine III called for a crusade against
pagans
in
Northern Europe in 1193. Bishop
Berthold of Hanover arrived with a large contingent of crusaders in
1198 but was killed in battle and his forces defeated. To avenge
Berthold's defeat,
Pope Innocent III issued a bull declaring a crusade against the
Livonians.
Albrecht von Buxthoeven, consecrated as bishop in 1199, arrived the
following year with a large force, and established Riga as the seat of
his
bishopric in 1201. In 1202 he formed the
Livonian Brothers of the Sword to aid in the conversion of the
pagans to Christianity and, more importantly, to protect German trade
and secure German control over commerce.
[65]
The
Livonian Crusade was proclaimed by Pope Innocent III against the
Livonians who were mostly still pagan.[66]
The Livonians were conquered and converted between 1202 and 1209.[65]
A crusade against the Prussians was called by Pope
Honorius III in 1217.[67]
Konrad of Masovia gave
Chelmno to the Teutonic Knights in 1226 to serve the knights as a
base for crusades against the Prussians,[68]
In 1236 the Livonian Sword Brothers were defeated by the Lithuanians at
Saule, and in 1237 Pope
Gregory IX merged the remaining Sword Brothers into the Teutonic
Knights.[69]
In 1240 the
Battle of the Neva was fought, where the Swedes, attempting to
extend the northern crusades to the Russians, were defeated.[70]
By 1249, the Teutonic Knights had completed their conquest of the
Prussians, which they ruled as a fief of the German emperor. The Knights
then moved on to conquer and convert the pagan Lithuanians, a process
that lasted into the 1380s.[71]
The Teutonic Order's attempts to conquer
Orthodox Russia (particularly the Republics of
Pskov and
Novgorod), an enterprise endorsed by Pope Gregory IX, can also be
considered as a part of the Northern Crusades. One of the major blows
for the idea of the conquest of Russia was the
Battle of the Ice in 1242.[71]
German
(1195-1198)
Main article:
German Crusade
Emperor
Henry VI took the cross in 1195. Henry's health did not allow him to
lead the forces in person, and leadership devolved on
Conrad of Wittelsbach, the
Archbishop of Mainz. The forces landed at Acre in September 1197 and
captured some towns, including Sidon and Beirut, but Henry's death in
late 1197 meant that most of the crusaders returned to Germany in the
middle of 1198.[72]
Fourth
(1202–1204)
Main article:
Fourth Crusade
The Latin Empire and the Partition of the Byzantine Empire
after the
Fourth Crusade. (c. 1204)
Recruitment for the Fourth Crusade was initiated in 1200 by Pope
Innocent III, with preaching taking place in France, England, and
Germany, although the bulk of the efforts were in France.[73]
Because the Crusaders lacked the funds to pay for the fleet and
provisions that they had contracted from the
Venetians, the
Doge of Venice,
Enrico Dandolo enlisted the crusaders to restore the Christian city
of Zara
to obedience, which surrendered to the crusaders on 24 November 1202.
Innocent was appalled and excommunicated the crusaders.[74]
Because they subsequently lacked provisions and time on their vessel
lease, the leaders decided to go to
Constantinople, where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on
the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of
violence, the crusaders
sacked the city on 13 April 1204.[75]
The crusaders established the so-called
Latin Empire and a series of other
Crusader states throughout the territories of the Greek Byzantine
Empire.[76]
While deploring the means, the papacy initially supported this apparent
forced reunion between the Eastern and Western churches.[77]
Albigensian Crusade (1208-1241)
Pope Innocent III excommunicating the Albigensians
(left), Massacre against the Albigensians by the crusaders
(right)
The
Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1208 to eliminate the
heretical
Cathars of
Occitania (southern modern-day France). It was a decades-long
struggle that had as much to do with the concerns of northern France to
extend its control southwards as it did with heresy. In the end, the
Cathars were driven underground and the independence of southern France
was eliminated.[78]
Pope
Honorius III called a crusade against supposed Cathar heretics in
Bosnia. There were rumors that there was an
anti-pope of the Cathars named Nicetas, although whether such a
figure ever existed is unclear. Hungarian forces responded to the papal
calls in two efforts in 1234 and 1241, with the second one ending
because of the Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1241. The Bosnian church
was Catholic in theology but continued in schism with the Roman Catholic
Church well past the end of the Middle Ages.[79]
Fifth
(1217–1221)
Main article:
Fifth Crusade
Pope Innocent III declared a new crusade to commence in 1217, along
with his summoning of the
Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215. The majority of the crusaders
came from Germany,
Flanders, and
Frisia,
along with a large army from Hungary led by King
Andrew II and other forces led by Duke
Leopold VI. The forces of Andrew and Leopold arrived in Acre in
October 1217 but little was accomplished and Andrew returned to Hungary
in January 1218. After the arrival of more crusaders, Leopold and the
king of Jerusalem,
John of Brienne, laid siege to
Damietta in Egypt,[80]
which they captured finally in November 1219. Further efforts by the
papal legate,
Pelagius, to invade further into Egypt led to no gains.[81]
Blocked by forces of the
Ayyubid
Sultan
Al-Kamil, the crusaders were forced to surrender. Al-Kamil forced
the return of Damietta and agreed to an eight-year truce and the
crusaders left Egypt.[82]
A followup to this crusade was the effort by King
Theobald I of Navarre in 1239 and 1240 that had originally been
called in 1234 by Pope
Gregory IX to assemble in July 1239 at the end of a truce. Besides
Theobald,
Peter of Dreux and
Hugh, Duke of Burgundy and other French nobles took part. They
arrived in Acre in September 1239 and after a defeat in November,
Theobald arranged a treaty with the Muslims that returned territory to
the crusading states, but caused much disaffection within the crusaders.
Theobald returned to Europe in September 1240. Also in 1240,
Richard of Cornwall, younger brother of King
Henry III of England, took the cross and arrived in Acre in October.
He then secured the ratification of Theobald's treaty and left the Holy
Land in May 1241 for Europe.[83]
Sixth
(1228–1229)
Main article:
Sixth Crusade
Dirham struck by Christians between 1216 and 1241 with
Arabic inscriptions.
Emperor
Frederick II had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed to live up to
his words,[84]
for which he was excommunicated by Gregory IX in 1228. He nonetheless
set sail from
Brindisi in June 1228 and landed at
Saint-Jean d'Acre in September 1228, after a stopover in Cyprus.[85]
There were no battles as Frederick made a peace treaty with
Al-Kamil, the ruler of Egypt. This treaty allowed Christians to rule
over most of Jerusalem and a strip of territory from Acre to Jerusalem,
while the Muslims were given control of their sacred areas in Jerusalem.
In return, Frederick pledged to protect Al-Kamil against all his
enemies, even if they were Christian.[86]
Seventh (1248–1254)
In the summer of 1244 a
Khwarezmian force summoned by the son of al-Kamil,
al-Salih Ayyub, stormed Jerusalem and took it. The Franks allied
with Ayyub's uncle
Ismail and the
emir of Homs and the combined forces were drawn into battle at
La Forbie in
Gaza. The
crusader army and its allies were completely defeated within forty-eight
hours by the Khwarezmian tribesmen.[87]
King
Louis IX of France organized a crusade after taking the cross in
December 1244, with preaching and recruitment taking up the time between
1245 and 1248.[88]
Louis' forces set sail from France in May 1249 and landed near Damietta
in Egypt on 5 June 1249. Waiting until the end of the Nile flood, the
army marched into the interior in November and by February were near El
Manusra. But they were defeated near there and King Louis was captured
on the retreat towards Damietta that resulted.[89]
Louis was ransomed for 800,000
bezants
and a ten-year truce was agreed. Louis then went to Syria where he
remained until 1254, working to solidify the kingdom of Jerusalem and
constructing fortifications.[90]
Eighth (1270)
Main article:
Eighth Crusade
Ignoring his advisers, in 1270 Louis IX again attacked the Arabs in
Tunis in North Africa. He picked the hottest season of the year for
campaigning and his army was devastated by disease. The king himself
died, ending the last major attempt to take the Holy Land.[91]
Ninth (1271–1272) and aftermath in the Middle East and North Africa
Main article:
Ninth Crusade
Christian states in the
Levant
The Mamluks, led by Baibars, eventually drove the Franks from the
Holy Land. During 1265 through 1271, he had driven the Franks to a few
small coastal outposts.[92]
The future
Edward I of England undertook to crusade with Louis IX, but was
delayed and did not arrive in North Africa until November 1270. After
the death of Louis, Edward went to Sicily, but then went on to Acre in
May 1271. His forces were too small to make much difference, and he was
upset at the conclusion of a truce between the king of Jerusalem,
Hugh, and
Baibars.
Although Edward learned of his father's death and his succession to the
throne in December 1272, he did not return to England until 1274,
although he accomplished little in the Holy Land.[93]
With the fall of
Tripoli in 1289,[94]
and
Acre in 1291, the mainland Crusading states disappeared.[95]
Further crusading efforts lingered into the 14th century. The
Alexandrian Crusade of October 1365 was a minor seaborne crusade
against Muslim
Alexandria led by
Peter I of Cyprus. His motivation was at least as commercial as
religious. It succeeded in capturing and sacking Alexandria, although
the crusaders did not stay in Alexandria.[96]
The
Mahdian Crusade of Summer 1390 was a French-Genoese enterprise
against Muslim
pirates in North Africa and their main base at
Mahdia
led by
Louis II, Duke of Bourbon. After a ten week siege, the crusaders
lifted their siege with the signing of a ten-year truce.[97]
Nicropolis
(1396)
Execution of Christian prisoners after the Battle of
Nicopolis in 1396.
Several crusades were launched in the 15th century to counter the
expanding
Ottoman Empire starting in 1396 with
Sigismund of Luxemburg, king of Hungary. Many French nobles joined
Sigismund's forces, including
John the Fearless, son of the Duke of Burgundy, who was appointed
the military leader of the crusade. Although Sigismund advised the
crusaders to adopt a defensive posture once they reached the Danube, the
crusaders instead besieged the city of
Nicopolis. The Ottomans met the crusaders in the
Battle of Nicopolis on 25 September 1396, defeating the Christian
forces and capturing 3,000 prisoners.[98]
Hussite
(1420-1431)
Main article:
Hussite Wars
The battle between the
Hussite warriors and the Crusaders, Jena Codex, 15th
century
The Hussite Crusade(s), also known as the "Hussite
Wars," or the "Bohemian Wars," involved the military actions against
the followers of
Jan Hus
in
Bohemia in the period 1420 to around 1431. Crusades were declared
five times in that period – in 1420, 1421, 1422, 1427 and in 1431. The
net effect of these expeditions was to force the Hussite forces, which
disagreed on many doctrinal points, to unite to drive out the invaders.
The wars were brought to a conclusion in 1436 with the ratification of
the
Compactata of Iglau by the Church.[99]
In April 1487, Pope
Innocent VIII called a crusade against the
Waldensian heretics of
Savoy,
the
Piedmont, and the
Dauphiné in southern France and northern Italy. The only efforts
actually undertaken were against heretics in the Dauphiné, and resulted
in little change.[100]
Varna (1444)
The Polish-Hungarian king,
Władysław Warneńczyk invaded Ottoman territory and reached Belgrade
in January 1444. Negotiations over a truce eventually led to an
agreement, that was repudiated by Sultan
Murad
II within days of its ratification. Further efforts by the crusaders
ended in the
Battle of Varna on 10 November 1444 which, although resulting in a
draw between the two forces, led to the crusaders withdrawing. This
withdrawal led to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, as it was the last
Western attempt to help the Byzantine Empire.
Seige of
Belgrade (1456)
In 1456
John Hunyadi and
Giovanni da Capistrano organized a crusade to lift the Ottomon siege
of Belgrade.[101]
General
Role of women, children and class
Women were intricately connected with the crusades, aiding the
recruitment of crusading men, taking on responsibility in their absence
and providing financial and moral support.[102][103]
Historians argue the most significant role that women played in the West
during the crusades was maintaining the status quo.[104]
Landholders left for the Holy Land leaving control of their estates with
regents, often wives or mothers.[105]
The Church recognised that risk to families and estates might discourage
crusaders so special papal protection formed part of the crusading
privilege.[106]
A few women took the cross themselves to go on the crusade.[107]
For example,
Eleanor of Aquitaine joined her husband,
Louis VII[107]
and some non-aristocratic women were involved in tasks considered
feminine like washerwoman.[108]
More controversial was women taking an active part, which threatened
their femininity with accounts of women fighting coming mostly from
Muslim historians with the aim to portray Christian women as barbaric
and ungodly because of their acts of killing.[109]
Christian accounts portray women fighting only in emergency situations
for the preservation of their camps and lives.[109]
Less historically certain was a movement in France and Germany in
1212 which attracted large numbers of peasant teenagers and young
people, with few under age 15, who were convinced they could succeed
where older and more sinful crusaders had failed: the miraculous power
of their faith would triumph where the force of arms had not. Many
parish priests and parents encouraged such religious fervor and urged
them on. The pope and bishops opposed the attempt but failed to stop it
entirely. A band of several thousand youth and young men led by a German
named Nicholas set out for Italy. About a third survived the march over
the Alps and got as far as Genoa; another group came to Marseilles. The
luckier ones eventually managed to get safely home, but many others were
sold as lifetime slaves on the auction blocks of Marseilles slave
dealers.[110]
Three crusading efforts among the peasants appeared in the middle
1250s and again in the early 1300s. The first, in
1251, was preached in northern France and after meeting with
Blanche of Castile became disorganized and had to be disbanded by
the government.[111]
The second, in 1309, occurred in England, northeastern France, and
Germany, and had as many as 30,000 peasants arriving at Avignon before
being disbanded.[112]
The last one, in
1320, had similar origins as the first shepherds' crusade, but
quickly turned into a series of attacks on clergy and Jews, and was
forcibly dispersed.[113]
Criticism
Elements of the Crusades were criticised by some contemporaries. For
example,
Roger Bacon felt the Crusades were not effective because, "those who
survive, together with their children, are more and more embittered
against the Christian faith."[114]
Nevertheless the movement was widely supported in Europe long after the
fall of Acre in 1291.[115]
From the fall of Acre forward, the Crusades to recover
Jerusalem and the Christian East were largely lost. Later,
18th century Enlightenment thinkers judged the Crusaders harshly.
Likewise, some modern historians in the West expressed moral outrage. In
the 1950s, Sir
Steven Runciman wrote that "High ideals were besmirched by cruelty
and greed ... the Holy War was nothing more than a long act of
intolerance in the name of God".[116]
Against this, the historian Thomas F. Madden has argued that the
Crusades were "the West's belated response to the Muslim conquest of
fully two-thirds of the Christian world".[117]
One aspect of the crusades that shocked some easterners was the
formation in the west of military religious orders.[118]
This violated canon law.[citation
needed] The Byzantines also complained that the
Crusaders broke their promise to return lands that had once belonged to
Byzantium, but failed to do so.[119]
In the Enlightenment historians criticized the misdirection of the
crusading movement. In particular they pointed to the Fourth Crusade
which instead of attacking Islam attacked another Christian power – the
(Eastern) Roman Empire. David Nicolle says the Fourth Crusade has always
been controversial in terms of the "betrayal" of Byzantium.[120]
Legacy
Historiography
During the
Reformation and
Counter-Reformation of the 16th centuries, historians saw the
Crusades through the prism of their own religious beliefs. Protestants
saw the crusades as a manifestation of the evils of the papacy, while
Catholics viewed the crusading movement as a force for good.[121]
During the
Enlightenment, historians tended to view both the Crusades and the
entire
Middle Ages as the efforts of barbarian cultures driven by
fanaticism.[122]
By the 19th century, with the dawning of
Romanticism, this harsh view of the Crusades and its time period was
mitigated somewhat,[123]
with later 19th century crusade scholarship focusing on increasing
specialization of study and more detailed works on subjects.[124]
The 20th century saw three important works covering the entire history
of the crusades – those of
Rene Grousset,
Steven Runciman, and the multi-author work edited by K. M. Stetton.[125]
The 20th century also saw the development of the pluralist view of
crusading, that saw the Crusades as not just confined to the Holy Land
but inclusive of all papal-led efforts whether in the Middle East or in
Europe.[126]
Politics and
culture
Popes called frequent crusades for political reasons and conflict
resolution amongst fellow Christians. Pope Innocent III declared a
crusade against his political opponent
Markward of Anweiler in Sicily. Only a few people took part, and the
need for the crusade ended in 1202 when Markward died. This is generally
considered the first "political crusades"[72]
Between 1232 and 1234 there was a crusade against the
Stedingers, peasants who refused to pay tithes to the
Archbishop of Bremen. The archbishop excommunicated them, and Pope
Gregory IX declared a crusade in 1232. The peasants lost the
Battle of Altenesch on 27 May 1234 and were destroyed.[127]
Emperor Frederick II was the object of several political crusades called
by a number of popes. In 1240 Pope Gregory IX deposed and preached a
crusade against him for his opposition in Italy.[83]
In 1248 Pope
Innocent IV's
[128] crusade against him was transferred in 1250 to his son,
Conrad IV when he died to little effect. Crusades were called
against Frederick's illegitimate son
Manfred, King of Sicily, from 1255 through 1266,[111]
and Conrad's son,
Conradin, in 1268 with the urging of
Charles of Anjou.[129]
Two crusades appear to have been called against opponents of King
Henry III of England – one from 1215 to 1217 and the other from 1263
to 1265 with the first enjoying the same privileges as those given to
crusaders on the Fifth Crusade. The second got as far as having papal
legates being dispatched to England with the power to declare crusade
against
Simon de Montfort, but Montfort's death in 1265 ended this.[130]
The
Norwich Crusade of 1383, also called
Despenser's crusade, which was a military expedition that aimed to
assist the city of
Ghent in
their struggle against the supporters of Antipope
Clement VII and was really an extension of the
Hundred Years War, rather than a purely religious enterprise.[131]
Crusades took place against the Byzantines who had been expelled from
Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade. With their recapture of the city
in 1261, crusades were called by the papacy from 1262 through 1281 to
drive the Greeks back out of Constantinople, with little result.[132]
The
Aragonese Crusade, or Crusade of Aragón, was declared by Pope
Martin IV against King
Peter III of Aragon, in 1284 and 1285. Peter was supporting the
anti-Angevin forces in Sicily following the
Sicilian Vespers, and the papacy supported Charles of Anjou. Pope
Boniface VIII proclaimed a crusade against
Frederick, the younger brother of Peter, in 1298, but was unable to
prevent Frederick's crowning and recognition as King of Sicily.[133]
20th century depiction of a victorious
Saladin
The Crusades influenced the attitude of the western Church and people
towards warfare. The frequent calling of crusades habituated the clergy
to the use of violence. The crusades also sparked debate about the
legitimacy of taking lands and possessions from pagans on purely
religious grounds that would arise again in the 15th and 16th centuries
with the
Age of Discovery.[134]
The needs of crusading warfare also stimulated secular governmental
developments, although this was not always a totally positive
development. The resources collected for crusading could have been used
by the developing states for local and regional needs instead of in far
away lands.[135]
The crusades impacted the papacy in a number of ways. Although they did
raise the prestige of the papacy, the sheer effort required to support
the crusaders took away resources that might have been better employed
elsewhere. The crusades did increase the control of the papal
curia
over the entire western Church, by extending the system of papal
taxation throughout the whole ecclesiastical structure of the west. The
crusades also stimulated the development of the
indulgence system that grew greatly in extent in late medieval
Europe, later to spark the
Protestant Reformation in the early 1500s.[136]
The military experiences of the crusades had a limited degree of
influence on European castle design; for example,
Caernarfon Castle, in Wales, begun in 1283, directly reflects the
style of fortresses Edward I had observed while fighting in the
Crusades.[137]
The crusades otherwise seem to have had little effect on military
tactics or organization, mainly because it was difficult to transfer the
lessons that were learned in the Holy Land to the different terrain and
fighting styles of Europe.[138]
The Northern Crusades caused great loss of life among the pagan
Polabian Slavs, and they consequently offered little opposition to
German colonization (known as
Ostsiedlung) of the Elbe-Oder region and were gradually assimilated
by the
Germans, with the exception of
Sorbs.[citation
needed] The
First Crusade ignited a long tradition of organized violence against
Jews in
European culture.[139]
The Albigensian Crusade was initiated by the Catholic Church to
eliminate the
Cathar heresy in Languedoc. The violence led to France's acquisition
of lands with closer cultural and linguistic ties to
Catalonia. The Albigensian Crusade also had a role in the creation
and institutionalization of both the
Dominican Order and the
Medieval Inquisition.[140]
Trade
The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a
flourishing of
trade throughout Europe. Roads largely unused since the days of
Rome saw significant increases in traffic as local merchants began
to expand their horizons. This was not only because the Crusades
prepared Europe for travel, but also because many wanted to
travel after being reacquainted with the products of the Middle East.
This also aided in the beginning of the
Renaissance in Italy, as various Italian
city-states from the very beginning had important and profitable
trading colonies in the crusader states, both in the
Holy
Land and later in captured
Byzantine territory.[141]
Increased trade brought many things to Europeans that were once unknown
or extremely rare and costly. These goods included a variety of spices,
ivory, jade, diamonds, improved glass-manufacturing techniques, early
forms of gunpowder, oranges, apples, and other Asian crops, and many
other products.
Etymology and
usage
The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants.
The original crusaders were known by various terms, including fideles
Sancti Petri (the faithful of
Saint Peter) or milites Christi
(knights of Christ). They saw themselves as undertaking an iter,
a journey, or a peregrinatio, a
pilgrimage, though pilgrims were usually forbidden from carrying
arms.[citation
needed] The word "crusade" first appears in the
L'Histoire des Croisades written by A. de Clermont and published in
1638. By 1750, the various forms of the word "crusade" had established
themselves in English, French and German.[142]
The
Oxford English Dictionary records its first use in English as
occurring in 1757 by William Shenstone.[143]
Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a votus), to be
fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a
cloth cross (crux) to be sewn into their clothes. This "taking of
the cross", the crux, eventually became associated with the
entire journey; the word "crusade" (coming into English from the
Medieval French croisade and Spanish cruzada).[144]
See also
Notes
Citations
-
^ Nelson
Byzantine Perspective of the First Crusade p. 40
-
^ Asbridge
Crusades p. 1
-
^ Wickham
Inheritance of Rome p. 280
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 4
-
^ Hindley
Crusades p. 14
-
^ Hindley
Crusades p. 15
-
^ Pringle
"Architecture in Latin East" Oxford History of the Crusades
p. 157
-
^
Findley 2005, p. 73.
-
^ Hindley
Crusades pp. 15–16
-
^ Madden New
Concise History of the Crusades p. 8
-
^ Mayer Crusades
pp. 2–3
- ^
a
b
c
Riley-Smith Crusades pp. 1–2
-
^ Asbridge, First
Crusade p. 97
- ^
a
b
c
d
Lock Routledge Companion
pp. 306–308
-
^ Mayer Crusades
pp. 6–7
-
^ Mayer Crusades
pp. 17–18
-
^ Housley
Contesting the Crusades p. 31
-
^ Riley-Smith
Crusades pp. 8–10
-
^
"Medieval Sourcebook: Urban II: Speech at Council of Clermont,
1095, according to Fulcherof Chartres". Fordham.edu.
Retrieved 2013-06-12.
-
^
Georg Strack, The sermon of Urban
II in Clermont 1095 and the Tradition of Papal Oratory, in:
Medieval Sermon Studies 56 (2012), S. 30-45.<http://www.mag.geschichte.uni-muenchen.de/downloads/strack_urban.pdf>.
-
^
"Decrees of Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, 1095".
Falcon.arts.cornell.edu.
Retrieved 2013-06-12.
-
^
"Medieval Sourcebook: Urban II: Speech at Council of Clermont,
1095, according to Fulcherof Chartres". Fordham.edu.
Retrieved 2013-06-12.
-
^
Quotes from Urban's letter in
Riley-Smith, Louise; Riley-Smith,
Johnathan, eds. (1981). The Crusades: Idea and Reality,
1095-1274. Documents of Medieval History 4. London:
E. Arnold. p. 38.
ISBN 0-7131-6348-8.
-
^ Munro "Speech of
Pope Urban II" American Historical Review
-
^ Riley-Smith
Crusades pp. 23–24
-
^ Tyerman God's
War pp. 192–194
- ^
a
b
Barber Two Cities
pp. 341–345
- ^
a
b
Bull "Origins" Oxford History of
the Crusades pp. 18–19
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 205–209
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 211–212
-
^ Hindley
Crusades pp. 20–21
-
^ Hindley
Crusades p. 23
-
^ Hindley
Crusades pp. 25–26
-
^ Hindley
Crusades pp. 27–30
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 20–21
-
^ Hindley
Crusades pp. 30–31
-
^ Tyerman God's
War pp. 106–110
-
^ Ashbridge
Crusades pp. 50–52
-
^ Ashbridge
Crusades p. 46
-
^ Riley-Smith
Crusades pp. 32–36
-
^ Tuchman A
Distant Mirror p. 279
-
^ Nicholle First
Crusade p. 56
-
^ Tyerman God's
War pp. 143–146
-
^
a
b
Tyerman God's War pp.
146–153
-
^ Mayer Crusades
pp. 60–61
-
^ Tyerman God's
War pp. 156–158
-
^ Riley-Smith
Crusades pp. 50–51
-
^ Housley
Contesting the Crusades p. 42
- ^
a
b
Lock Routledge Companion pp.
144–145
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 146–147
-
^ Riley-Smith
Crusades pp. 104–105
-
^ Hindley
Crusades pp. 71–74
- ^
a
b
Hindley Crusades pp. 77–85
-
^ Hindley
Crusades pp. 75–77
-
^
Villegas-Aristizábal "Anglo-Norman involvement" Crusades
- ^
a
b
Lock Routledge Companion p.
151
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 48
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 213–214
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 55
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 56
-
^ Holt "Saladin and
His Admirers" Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African
Studies pp. 235–239
-
^ Ashbridge
Crusades pp. 343–357
-
^ Ashbridge
Crusades p. 367
-
^ Ashbridge
Crusades pp. 512–513
- ^
a
b
Lock Routledge Companion p.
84
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 82
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 92
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 96
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 103
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 104
- ^
a
b
Lock Routledge Companion pp.
221–222
- ^
a
b
Lock Routledge Companion pp.
155–156
-
^ Tyerman God's
War pp. 502–508
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 158–159
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 159–161
-
^ Tyerman God's
War pp. 554–561
-
^ Ashbridge
Crusades pp. 531–532
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 163–165
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 172–173
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 168–169
-
^ Riley-Smith
Crusades pp. 179–180
-
^ Hindley
Crusades pp. 561–562
- ^
a
b
Lock Routledge Companion pp.
173–174
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 169
-
^ Ashbridge
Crusades pp. 566–568
-
^ Ashbridge
Crusades p. 569
-
^ Ashbridge
Crusades pp. 574–576
-
^ Tyerman God's
War pp. 770–775
-
^ Hindley
Crusades pp. 194–195
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 178
-
^ Strayer "Crusades
of Louis IX" Later Crusades p. 487
-
^ Tyerman God's
War pp. 816–817
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 164
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 122
-
^ Tyerman God's
War pp. 820–822
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 195–196
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 199
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 200
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 201–202
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 204
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 202–203
-
^ Hodgson Women,
Crusading and the Holy Land pp. 39–44
-
^
C.T. Maier, "The roles of women in
the crusade movement: a survey" Journal of medieval history
(2004). 30#1 pp 61-82
-
^
Susan B. Edgington and Sarah
Lambert, eds., Gendering the Crusades (2002)
-
^ Riley-Smith
First Crusaders p. 99
-
^ Hodgson Women,
Crusading and the Holy Land pp. 110–112
- ^
a
b
Owen Eleanor of Aquitaine p.
22
-
^ Edington and
Lambert Gendering the Crusades p. 98
-
^
a
b
Nicholson "Women on the Third
Crusade" Journal of Medieval History p. 337
-
^ Zacour "Children's
Crusade" Later Crusades pp. 330–337
- ^
a
b
Lock Routledge Companion p.
179
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 187–188
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 190
-
^ Quoted in Rose
Order of the Knights Templar p. 72
-
^ Rose "Order of the
Knights Templar p. 72
-
^ Runciman
History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre p. 480
-
^
Madden,
Thomas F. (1 November 2001).
"Guest Comment on NRO: Crusade Propoganda". National
Review Online.
-
^ Kolbaba
Byzantine Lists p. 49
-
^ Vasilʹev
History of the Byzantine Empire p. 408
-
^ Nicolle Fourth
Crusade p. 5
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 257
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 259
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 261
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 266
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 269
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 270
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 172
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 176
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 180
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 167
-
^ Tyerman England
and the Crusades p. 336
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion pp. 181–182
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 186
-
^ Housley
Contesting the Crusades pp. 146–147
-
^ Housley
Contesting the Crusades p. 149
-
^ Housley
Contesting the Crusades pp. 147–149
-
^
"Caernarfon Castle". Uktv.co.uk. 2007-03-12.
Retrieved 2010-04-18.
-
^ Housley
Contesting the Crusades p. 155
-
^ Housley
Contesting the Crusades pp. 161–163
-
^ Strayer
Albigensian Crusades p. 143
-
^ Housley
Contesting the Crusades pp. 152–154
-
^ Lock Routledge
Companion p. 258
-
^ Hindley
Crusades pp. 2–3
-
^
American Heritage Dictionary of
the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2009
References
- Asbridge, Thomas (2011). The
Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land.
Ecco.
ISBN 978-0-06-078729-5.
- Asbridge, Thomas (2005). The
First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between
Christianity and Islam. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-518905-6.
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Barber, Malcolm (1992). The Two Cities: Medieval Europe
1050–1320. London: Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-09682-0.
- Brand, Charles M. (April
1962). "The Byzantines and Saladin, 1185–1192: Opponents of the
Third Crusade". Speculum 37 (2): 167–181.
doi:10.2307/2849946.
JSTOR 2849946.
- Bréhier, Louis (1908).
"Crusades". Catholic Encyclopedia 4.
- Bull, Marcus (1999).
"Origins". In Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of
the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 15–34.
ISBN 0-19-280312-3.
- Dickson, Gary (2008). The
Children's Crusade: Medieval History, Modern Mythistory.
Palgrave Macmillan.
- Edington, Susan B. and Lambert,
Sarah (2002). Gendering the Crusades. New York: Columbia
University Press.
- Esposito, John L.
What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam.
- Findley, Carter Vaughan (2005).
The Turks in World History. New York: Oxford University
Press.
ISBN 0-19-516770-8.
- Hindley, Geoffrey. The
Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World
Supremacy. New York: Carrol & Graf.
ISBN 0-7867-1344-5.
- Hodgson, Natasha (2007).
Women, Crusading and the Holy Land in Historical Narrative.
Boydell.
- Holt, P. M. (1983). "Saladin
and His Admirers: A Biographical Reassessment". Bulletin of
the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
46 (2): 235–239.
doi:10.1017/S0041977X00078824.
JSTOR 615389.
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Housley, Norman (2006). Contesting the Crusades.
Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
ISBN 1-4051-1189-5.
- Jackson, Peter (2007). The
Seventh Crusade, 1244–1254.
- Kolbaba, T. M. (2000). The
Byzantine Lists: Errors of the Latins. University of
Illinois.
- Lewis, Richard D. (2005).
Finland: Cultural Lone Wolf. Intercultural Press.
ISBN 978-1-931930-49-9.
- Lock, Peter (2006). Routledge
Companion to the Crusades. New York: Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-39312-4.
- Madden, Thomas F. (2005). The
New Concise History of the Crusades. Lanham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefield.
ISBN 978-0-7425-3822-1.
- Mayer, Hans Eberhard (1988).
The Crusades (Second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-873097-7.
- Munro, Dana Carleton (January
1906). "The Speech of Pope Urban II at Clermont, 1095".
American Historical Review 11 (2): 231–242.
doi:10.2307/1834642.
JSTOR 1834642.
- Nelson, Laura N. The
Byzantine Perspective of the First Crusade.
- Nicholson, Helen (1997).
"Women on the Third Crusade". Journal of Medieval History
23 (4): 335.
doi:10.1016/S0304-4181(97)00013-4.
- Nicolle, David (2007).
Crusader Warfare Volume II: Muslims, Mongols and the Struggle
against the Crusades.
- Nicolle, David (2003). The
First Crusade 1066–99: Conquest of the Holy Land. Campaign.
Wellingborough, UK: Osprey.
ISBN 1-84176-515-5.
- Nicolle, David (2011). The
Fourth Crusade 1202–04: The Betrayal of Byzantium. Osprey
Publishing.
- Pringle, Denys (1999).
"Architecture in Latin East". In Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The
Oxford History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University
Press. pp. 155–175.
ISBN 0-19-280312-3.
- Owen, Roy Douglas Davis (1993).
Eleanor of Aquitaine: Queen and Legend. Oxford, UK:
Blackwell Publishing.
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The Atlas of the Crusades. New York: Facts on File.
ISBN 0-8160-2186-4.
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Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2005). The Crusades: A Short
History (Second ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
ISBN 0-300-10128-7.
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The First Crusaders 1096–1131. New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.
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Runciman, Steven (1951). A History of the Crusades: The
Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades (reprinted 1987 ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
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The Albigensian Crusades. University of Michigan Press.
ISBN 0-472-06476-2.
- Strayer, Joseph R.
(1969).
"The Crusades of Louis IX". In Wolff, R. L. and Hazard, H.
W. The Later Crusades, 1189–1311. pp. 487–521.
- Tyerman, Christopher (1988).
England and the Crusades, 1095–1588. Chicago, IL: University
of Chicago Press.
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God's War: A New History of the Crusades. Cambridge, MA:
Belknap Press.
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- Vasilʹev, Aleksandr
Aleksandrovich (1952). History of the Byzantine Empire:
324–1453. University of Wisconsin Press.
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(2009). "Anglo-Norman involvement in the conquest of Tortosa and
Settlement of Tortosa, 1148–1180". Crusades (8): 63–129.
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Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome:
Illuminating the Dark Ages 400–1000. New York: Penguin
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(1969).
"The Children's Crusade". In Wolff, R. L. and Hazard, H. W.
The Later Crusades, 1189–1311. pp. 325–342.
Further reading
Introductions
- Andrea, Alfred J. Encyclopedia of the Crusades. (2003)
- Asbridge, Thomas. The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots
of Conflict between Christianity and Islam (2005)
- France, John. Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades,
1000–1300 (1999)
- Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives.
(2000)
- Holt, P.M. The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the
Eleventh Century to 1517. (1986)
- Phillips, Jonathan. Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the
Crusades (2010)
- Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. The Atlas of the Crusades
(1991)
- Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades, Christianity, and Islam
(2011)
Specialized
studies
- Boas, Adrian J. Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades:
Society, Landscape, and Art in the Holy City under Frankish Rule
(2001)
- Bull, Marcus, and Norman Housley, eds. The Experience of
Crusading Volume 1, Western Approaches. (2003)
- Edbury, Peter, and Jonathan Phillips, eds. The Experience of
Crusading Volume 2, Defining the Crusader Kingdom. (2003)
- Florean, Dana. "East Meets West: Cultural Confrontation and
Exchange after the First Crusade." Language & Intercultural
Communication, 2007, Vol. 7 Issue 2, pp. 144–151
- Folda, Jaroslav. Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the
Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre (2005)
- France, John. Victory in the East: A Military History of the
First Crusade (1996)
- Harris, Jonathan. Byzantium and the Crusades. (2003)
- Hillenbrand, Car. The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives
(1999)
- Housley, Norman. The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: From Lyons to
Alcazar (1992)
- James, Douglas. "Christians and the First Crusade." History
Review (Dec 2005), Issue 53
- Kagay, Donald J., and L. J. Andrew Villalon, eds. Crusaders,
Condottieri, and Cannon: Medieval Warfare in Societies around the
Mediterranean. (2003)
- Maalouf, Amin. Crusades Through Arab Eyes (1989)
- Madden, Thomas F. et al., eds. Crusades Medieval
Worlds in Conflict (2010)
- Peters, Edward. Christian Society and the Crusades, 1198–1229
(1971)
- Powell, James M. Anatomy of a Crusade, 1213–1221, (1986)
- Queller, Donald E., and Thomas F. Madden. The Fourth Crusade:
The Conquest of Constantinople (2nd ed. 1999)
- Riley-Smith, Jonathan.The First Crusade and the Idea of
Crusading. (1986)
- Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades: Volume 2, The
Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East (1952)
vol 2 online free; A History of the Crusades: Volume 3, The
Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades (1954); the classic 20th
century history
- Setton, Kenneth ed., A History of the Crusades.
(1969–1989), the standard scholarly history in six volumes,
published by the University of Wisconsin Press
- Includes:
The first hundred years (2nd ed. 1969);
The later Crusades, 1189–1311 (1969);
The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (1975);
The art and architecture of the crusader states (1977);
The impact of the Crusades on the Near East (1985);
The impact of the Crusades on Europe (1989)
- Smail, R. C. "Crusaders' Castles of the Twelfth Century"
Cambridge Historical Journal Vol. 10, No. 2. (1951),
pp. 133–149.
- Stark, Rodney. God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades
(2010)
- Tyerman, Christopher. England and the Crusades, 1095–1588.
(1988)
Historiography
- Constable, Giles. "The Historiography of the Crusades" in
Angeliki E. Laiou, ed. The Crusades from the Perspective of
Byzantium and the Muslim World (2001)
Extract online.
- Illston, James Michael. 'An Entirely Masculine Activity’?
Women and War in the High and Late Middle Ages Reconsidered (MA
thesis, University of Canterbury, 2009)
full text online
- Madden, Thomas F. ed. The Crusades: The Essential Readings
(2002)
- Maier, C.T. "The roles of women in the crusade movement: a
survey" Journal of medieval history 2004.
Primary sources
-
Barber, Malcolm, Bate, Keith (2010). Letters from the East:
Crusaders, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th–13th Centuries
(Crusade Texts in Translation Volume 18, Ashgate Publishing Ltd)
- Housley, Norman, ed. Documents on the Later Crusades,
1274–1580 (1996)
- Krey, August C. The First Crusade: The Accounts of
Eye-Witnesses and Participants (1958)
- Shaw, M. R. B. ed.Chronicles of the Crusades (1963)
- Villehardouin, Geoffrey, and Jean de Joinville. Chronicles of
the Crusades ed. by Sir Frank Marzials (2007)
External links
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