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July
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Margherita Hack
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Idiom
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Laurel and Hardy
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Cloud computing
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Fast food
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Coursera
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Tour de France
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English modal verbs
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Hartz concept
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American Civil War
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Florence
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Rita Levi Montalcini
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Credit rating agency
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List of Italian musical terms used in English
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Louvre
|
WIKIMAG n. 8 - Luglio 2013
Louvre
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The Musée du Louvre (French
pronunciation: [myze
dy luvʁ])—in English, the Louvre Museum or
simply The Louvre—is one of the world's largest
museums, and a historic monument. A central landmark of
Paris,
France, it is located on the
Right Bank of the
Seine
in the
1st arrondissement (district). Nearly 35,000 objects from
prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of
60,600 square metres (652,300 square feet). With more than 8
million visitors each year, the Louvre is the world's most
visited museum.[5]
The museum is housed in the
Louvre Palace (Palais du Louvre) which began as a
fortress built in the late 12th century under
Philip II. Remnants of the fortress are visible in the
basement of the museum. The building was extended many times to
form the present Louvre Palace. In 1682,
Louis XIV chose the
Palace of Versailles for his household, leaving the Louvre
primarily as a place to display the royal collection, including,
from 1692, a collection of antique sculpture.[6]
In 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des
Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de
Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a
series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100
years.[7]
During the
French Revolution, the
National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as
a museum, to display the nation's masterpieces.
The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of
537 paintings, the majority of the works being royal and
confiscated church property. Because of structural problems with
the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The size
of the collection increased under
Napoleon and the museum was renamed the Musée Napoléon.
After the defeat of Napoleon at
Waterloo, many works seized by his armies were returned to
their original owners. The collection was further increased
during the reigns of
Louis XVIII and
Charles X, and during the
Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces.
Holdings have grown steadily through donations and gifts since
the
Third Republic. As of 2008, the collection is divided among
eight curatorial departments: Egyptian Antiquities; Near Eastern
Antiquities; Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities; Islamic
Art; Sculpture; Decorative Arts; Paintings; Prints and Drawings.
History
12th-20th
centuries
Medieval, Renaissance, and Bourbon palace
The only portion of the medieval Louvre still
visible [8]
The
Louvre Palace (Palais du Louvre) which houses the
museum was begun as a fortress by Philip II in the 12th century,
with remnants of this building still visible in the crypt.[8]
Whether this was the first building on that spot is not known;
it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower.[9]
Although some believe that the word 'louvre' may refer to the
structure's status as the largest in late 12th century Paris
(from the French L'Œuvre, masterpiece) – or to its
location in a forest (from the French rouvre, oak) –
according to the authoritative
Grand Larousse encyclopédique, it derives from an
association with
wolf hunting den (via Latin: lupus, lower Empire:
lupara).[9][10]
In the 7th century, St. Fare, an abbess in Meaux, left part of
her "Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris" to a
monastery.;[11]
this territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern
site, however.
The Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the
Middle Ages. In the 14th century,
Charles V converted the building into a residence and in
1546,
Francis I (François 1er ) renovated the site in
French Renaissance style.[12]
Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvre's
holdings, his acquisitions including
Leonardo da Vinci's
Mona Lisa.[13]
After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682,
constructions slowed; however, the move permitted the Louvre to
be used as a residence for artists.[12][14][15]
By the mid-18th century there was an increasing number of
proposals to create a public gallery, with the art critic La
Font de Saint-Yenne publishing, in 1747, a call for a display of
the royal collection'.[16]
On 14 October 1750,
Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from
the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de
peinture of the
Luxembourg Palace. A hall was opened by
Le Normant de Tournehem and the
Marquis de Marigny for public viewing of the Tableaux du
Roy on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and contained
Andrea del Sarto's Charity and works by
Raphael;
Titian;
Veronese;
Rembrandt;
Poussin or
Van Dyck, until its closing in 1780 as a result of the gift
of the palace to the
comte de Provence by the king in 1778.[17]
Under
Louis XVI, the royal museum idea became policy.[16]
The
comte d'Angiviller broadened the collection and in 1776
proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre –
which contained maps – into the "French Museum".[17]
Many proposals were offered for the Louvre's renovation into a
museum, however none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained
incomplete until the French Revolution.[17]
French
Revolution
During the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into
a public museum. In May 1791,
the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be "a place for
bringing together monuments of all the sciences and arts".[17]
On 10 August 1792,
Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the
Louvre became national property. Because of fear of vandalism or
theft, on 19 August, the National Assembly pronounced the
museum's preparation as urgent. In October, a committee to
"preserve the national memory" began assembling the collection
for display.[18]
Opening
The museum opened on 10 August 1793, the first anniversary of
the monarchy's demise. The public was given free access on three
days per week, which was "perceived as a major accomplishment
and was generally appreciated".[20]
The collection showcased 537 paintings and 184 objects of art.
Three quarters were derived from the royal collections, the
remainder from confiscated
émigrés and
Church property (biens
nationaux).[21][22]
To expand and organize the collection, the Republic dedicated
100,000 livres
per year.[17]
In 1794, France's revolutionary armies began bringing pieces
from Northern Europe, augmented after the
Treaty of Tolentino (1797) by works from the Vatican, such
as
Laocoön and His Sons and the
Apollo Belvedere, to establish the Louvre as a museum
and as a "sign of popular sovereignty".[21][23]
The early days were hectic; privileged artists continued to
live in residence, and the unlabelled paintings hung "frame to
frame from floor to ceiling".[21]
The building itself closed in May 1796 due to structural
deficiencies. It reopened on 14 July 1801, arranged
chronologically and with new lighting and columns.[21]
Napoleon I
Under
Napoleon I, a northern wing paralleling the Grande
Galérie was begun, and the collection grew through
successful military campaigns.[24]
Following the
Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801, Napoléon appointed the
museum's first director,
Dominique Vivant Denon. In tribute, the museum was renamed
the "Musée Napoléon" in 1803, and acquisitions were made of
Spanish, Austrian, Dutch, and Italian works, either as spoils or
through treaties such as the
Treaty of Tolentino.[25]
After the French defeat at
Waterloo, the works' former owners sought their return. The
Louvre's administrators were loath to comply and hid many works
in their private collections. In response, foreign states sent
emissaries to London to seek help, and many pieces were
returned, even some that had been restored by the Louvre.[25][26]
In 1815
Louis XVIII finally concluded agreements with Italy for the
keeping of pieces such as Veronese's
Wedding at Cana which was exchanged for a large
Le Brun or the repurchase of the
Albani collection.
Restoration and Second Empire
During the Restoration (1814–30),
Louis XVIII and
Charles X between them added 135 pieces at a cost of
720,000 francs and created the department of Egyptian
antiquities curated by
Champollion, increased by more than 7,000 works with the
acquisition of antiquities in the
Edmé-Antoine Durand, the Egyptian collection of
Henry Salt or the second collection former by
Bernardino Drovetti. This was less than the amount given for
rehabilitation of
Versailles, and the Louvre suffered relative to the rest of
Paris. After the creation of the
French Second Republic in 1848, the new government allocated
two million francs for repair work and ordered the completion of
the Galerie d'Apollon, the Salon Carré, and the
Grande Galérie.[27]
In 1861,
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte bought 11,835 artworks including
641 paintings, Greek gold and other antiquities of the
Campana collection. During the
Second French Empire, between 1852 and 1870, the French
economy grew; by 1870 the museum had added 20,000 new pieces to
its collections, and the
Pavillon de Flore and the Grande Galérie were
remodelled under architects
Louis Visconti and
Hector Lefuel.[27]
Third Republic and World Wars
During the
French Third Republic the Louvre acquired new pieces mainly
via donations and gifts. The Société des Amis du Louvre
donated the
Pietà of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, and in 1863 an
expedition uncovered the sculpture
Winged Victory of Samothrace in the Aegean Sea. This
piece, though heavily damaged, has been prominently displayed
since 1884.[28]
The 583-item Collection La Caze donated in 1869, included
works by
Chardin;
Fragonard;
Rembrandt – such as
Bathsheba at Her Bath – and Gilles by
Watteau.[28]
Museum expansion slowed after World War I, and the collection
did not acquire many significant new works; exceptions were
Georges de La Tour's Saint Thomas and
Baron Edmond de Rothschild's (1845–1934) 1935 donation of
4,000 engravings, 3,000 drawings, and 500 illustrated books.[22]
During World War II the museum removed most of the art and
hid valuable pieces. When Germany occupied the
Sudetenland, many important artworks such as the
Mona Lisa were temporarily moved to the
Château de Chambord. When war was formally declared a year
later, most of the museum's paintings were sent there as well.
Select sculptures such as
Winged Victory of Samothrace and the
Venus de Milo were sent to the
Château de Valençay.[29]
On 27 August 1939, after two days of packing, truck convoys
began to leave Paris. By 28 December, the museum was cleared of
most works, except those that were too heavy and "unimportant
paintings [that] were left in the basement".[30]
In early 1945, after the liberation of France, art began
returning to the Louvre.[31]
Grand Louvre and the Pyramids
Main article:
Louvre Pyramid
By 1874, the Louvre Palace had achieved its present form of
an almost rectangular structure with the Sully Wing to the east
containing the square Cour Carrée and the oldest parts of
the Louvre; and two wings which wrap the Cour Napoléon,
the Richelieu Wing to the north and the Denon Wing, which
borders the Seine to the south.[32]
In 1983, French President
François Mitterrand proposed, as one of his
Grands Projets, the Grand Louvre plan to renovate the
building and relocate the Finance Ministry, allowing displays
throughout the building. Architect
I. M. Pei was awarded the project and proposed a glass
pyramid to stand over a new entrance in the main court, the
Cour Napoléon.[33]
The pyramid and its underground lobby were inaugurated on 15
October 1988; the pyramid was completed in 1989. The second
phase of the Grand Louvre plan,
La Pyramide Inversée (The Inverted Pyramid), was completed
in 1993. As of 2002, attendance had doubled since completion.[34]
The Louvre Palace and the Pyramid (by night)
The Louvre Palace and the Pyramid (by day)
21st century
The Louvre Museum with its Glass Pyramid
The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects
and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments
with more than 60,600 square metres (652,000 sq ft) dedicated to
the permanent collection.[35]
The Louvre exhibits sculptures,
objets d'art, paintings, drawings, and archaeological finds.[22]
It is the
world's most visited museum, averaging 15,000 visitors per
day, 65 percent of whom are foreign tourists.[34][36]
After architects
Mario Bellini and
Rudy Ricciotti had won an international competition to
create its new galleries for Islamic art, the new 3,000 sq m[37]
pavilion eventually opened in 2012, consisting of ground- and
lower-ground-level interior spaces topped by a golden,
undulating roof (fashioned from almost 9,000 steel tubes that
form an interior web) that seems to float within the
neo-Classical Visconti Courtyard in the middle of the Louvre’s
south wing.[38]
The galleries, which the museum had initially hoped to open by
2009, represent the first major architectural intervention at
the Louvre since the addition of I.M. Pei’s glass pyramid in
1989.[39]
Administration
The Louvre is owned by the French government; however, since
the 1990s it has become more independent.[36][40][41][42]
Since 2003, the museum has been required to generate funds for
projects.[41]
By 2006, government funds had dipped from 75 percent of the
total budget to 62 percent. As the Louvre became a point of
interest in the book
The Da Vinci Code and the 2006 film based on the book,
the museum earned $2.5 million by allowing filming in its
galleries.[43][44]
In 2008, the French government provided $180 million of the
Louvre's yearly $350 million budget; the remainder came from
private contributions and ticket sales.[40]
The Louvre employs a staff of 2,000 led by Director
Jean-Luc Martinez,[45]
who reports to the French Ministry of Culture and
Communications. Martinez replaced
Henri Loyrette in April 2013. Under Loyrette, who replaced
Pierre Rosenberg in 2001, the Louvre has undergone policy
changes that allow it to lend and borrow more works than before.[36][41]
In 2006, it loaned 1,300 works, which enabled it to borrow more
foreign works. From 2006 to 2009, the Louvre lent artwork to the
High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia, and received a
$6.9 million payment to be used for renovations.[41]
In 2012, the Louvre and the
Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco announced a five-year
collaboration on exhibitions, publications, art conservation and
educational programming.[46]
The €98.5m expansion of the Islamic Art galleries in 2012
received state funding of €31 million, as well as €17 million
from the
Alwaleed Bin Talal Foundation founded by the eponymous Saudi
prince. The republic of Azerbaijan, the Emir of Kuwait, the
Sultan of Oman and
King Mohammed VI of Morocco donated in total €26 million. In
addition, the opening of the Louvre Abu Dhabi is supposed to
provide €400 million over the course of 30 years for its use of
the museum’s prestigious brand.[47]
Loyrette has tried to improve weak parts of the collection
through income generated from loans of art and by guaranteeing
that "20% of admissions receipts will be taken annually for
acquisitions".[41]
He has more administrative independence for the museum and
achieved 90 percent of galleries to be open daily, as opposed to
80 percent previously. He oversaw the creation of extended hours
and free admission on Friday nights and an increase in the
acquisition budget to $36 million from $4.5 million.[40][41]
Satellite
museums
Lens
Main article:
Louvre-Lens
In 2004, French officials decided to build a satellite museum
on the site of an abandoned coal pit in the former mining town
of
Lens to relieve the crowded Paris Louvre, increase total
museum visits, and improve the industrial north's economy.[48]
Six cities were considered for the project: Amiens, Arras,
Boulogne-sur-Mer, Calais, Lens, and Valenciennes. In 2004,
French Prime Minister
Jean-Pierre Raffarin chose Lens to be the site of the new
building, called Le Louvre-Lens. Japanese architects
SANAA
were selected to design the Lens project in 2005. Museum
officials predicted that the new building, capable of receiving
about 600 works of art, would attract up to 500,000 visitors a
year when it opened in 2012.[48]
Abu Dhabi
In March 2007, the Louvre announced that a Louvre museum
would be completed by 2012 in
Abu Dhabi. A 30-year agreement, signed by French Culture
Minister
Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Sheik Sultan bin Tahnoon Al
Nahyan, will establish the museum in downtown Abu Dhabi in
exchange for €832,000,000 (US$1.3 billion). The Louvre Abu
Dhabi, designed by the French architect
Jean Nouvel and the engineering firm of
Buro Happold, will occupy 24,000 square metres
(260,000 sq ft) and will be covered by a roof shaped like a
flying saucer. France agreed to rotate between 200 and
300 artworks during a 10-year period; to provide management
expertise; and to provide four temporary exhibitions a year for
15 years. The art will come from multiple museums, including the
Louvre, the
Georges Pompidou Centre, the Musée d'Orsay, Versailles, the
Musée Guimet, the
Musée Rodin, and the
Musée du quai Branly.[49]
Controversies
The Louvre is involved in controversies that surround
cultural property seized under Napoleon I, as well as during
World War II by the Nazis. After
Nazi occupation, 61,233 articles on more than 150,000 seized
artworks returned to France and were assigned to the Office
des Biens Privés. In 1949, it entrusted 2130 remaining
unclaimed pieces (including 1001 paintings) to the Direction
des Musées de France in order to keep them under appropriate
conditions of conservation until their restitution and meanwhile
classified them as MNRs (Musees Nationaux Recuperation
or, in English, the National Museums of Recovered Artwork). Some
10% to 35% of the pieces are believed to come from Jewish
spoliations[50]
and until the identification of their rightful owners, which
declined at the end of the 1960s, they are registered
indefinitely on separate inventories from the museum's
collections.
They were exhibited in 1946 and shown all together to the
public during four years (1950–1954) in order to allow rightful
claimants to identify their properties, then stored or
displayed, according to their interest, in several French
museums including the Louvre. From 1951 to 1965, about 37 pieces
were restituted. Since November 1996, the partly illustrated
catalogue of 1947–1949 has been accessible online and completed.
In 1997, Prime Minister
Alain Juppé initiated the Mattéoli Commission, headed by
Jean Mattéoli, to investigate the matter and according to
the government, the Louvre is in charge of 678 pieces of artwork
still unclaimed by their rightful owners.[51]
During the late 1990s, the comparison of the American war
archives, which had not been done before, with the French and
German ones as well as two court cases which finally settled
some of the heirs' rights (Gentili di Giuseppe and Rosenberg
families) allowed more accurate investigations. Since 1996, the
restitutions, according sometimes to less formal criteria,
concerned 47 more pieces (26 paintings, with 6 from the Louvre
including a then displayed Tiepolo), until the last claims of
French owners and their heirs ended again in 2006.
According to
Serge Klarsfeld, since the now complete and constant
publicity which the artworks got in 1996, the majority of the
French Jewish community is nevertheless in favour of the return
to the normal French civil rule of prescription acquisitive
of any unclaimed good after another long period of time and
consequently to their ultimate integration into the common
French heritage instead of their transfer to foreign
institutions like during World War II.
Napoleon's campaigns acquired Italian pieces by treaties, as
war reparations, and Northern European pieces as spoils as well
as some antiquities excavated in Egypt, though the vast majority
of the latter were seized as war reparations by the British army
and are now part of collections of the
British Museum. On the other hand, the
Dendera zodiac is, like the
Rosetta stone, claimed by Egypt even though it was acquired
in 1821, before the Egyptian Anti-export legislation of 1835.
The Louvre administration has thus argued in favor of retaining
this item despite requests by Egypt for its return. The museum
participates too in arbitration sessions held via
UNESCO's Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural
Property to Its Countries of Origin.[52]
The museum consequently returned in 2009 five Egyptian fragments
of frescoes (30 cm x 15 cm each) whose existence of the tomb of
origin had only been brought to the authorities attention in
2008, eight to five years after their good-faith acquisition by
the museum from two private collections and after the necessary
respect of the procedure of déclassement from French
public collections before the
Commission scientifique nationale des collections des musées de
France.[53]
Collections
The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects
and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial
departments.[55]
Egyptian
antiquities
The department, comprising over 50,000 pieces,[56]
includes artifacts from the
Nile
civilizations which date from 4,000 BC to the 4th century.[57]
The collection, among the world's largest, overviews Egyptian
life spanning
Ancient Egypt, the
Middle Kingdom, the
New Kingdom,
Coptic art, and the
Roman,
Ptolemaic, and
Byzantine periods.[57]
The department's origins lie in the royal collection, but it was
augmented by Napoleon's 1798 expeditionary trip with
Dominique Vivant, the future director of the Louvre.[56]
After
Jean-François Champollion translated the
Rosetta Stone,
Charles X decreed that an Egyptian Antiquities department be
created. Champollion advised the purchase of three collections,
formed by
Edmé-Antoine Durand,
Henry Salt and
Bernardino Drovet; these additions added 7,000 works. Growth
continued via acquisitions by
Auguste Mariette, founder of the
Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Mariette, after excavations at
Memphis, sent back crates of archaeological finds including
The Seated Scribe.[56][58]
Guarded by the Large Sphinx (c. 2000 BC), the
collection is housed in more than 20 rooms. Holdings include
art,
papyrus scrolls, mummies, tools, clothing, jewelry, games,
musical instruments, and weapons.[56][57]
Pieces from the ancient period include the
Gebel el-Arak Knife from 3400 BC, The Seated Scribe,
and the Head of King Djedefre. Middle Kingdom art, "known
for its gold work and statues", moved from realism to
idealization; this is exemplified by the
schist statue of
Amenemhatankh and the wooden Offering Bearer. The New
Kingdom and Coptic Egyptian sections are deep, but the statue of
the goddess
Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the goddess
Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and wealth.[57][58]
Human-headed winged bull ( shedu),
Assyria, limestone, 8th century BC.
Near
Eastern antiquities
Near Eastern antiquities, the second newest department, dates
from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near Eastern
civilization and "first settlements", before the arrival of
Islam.
The department is divided into three geographic areas: the
Levant,
Mesopotamia (Iraq, Syria), and
Persia (Iran)
. The collection's development corresponds to archaeological
work such as
Paul-Émile Botta's 1843 expedition to
Khorsabad and the discovery of
Sargon II's palace.[57][59]
These finds formed the basis of the Assyrian museum, the
precursor to today's department.[57]
The museum contains exhibits from
Sumer
and the city of
Akkad, with monuments such as the Prince of Lagash's
Stele of the Vultures from 2,450 BC and the
stele
erected by
Naram-Sin, King of Akkad, to celebrate a victory over
barbarians in the
Zagros Mountains. The 2.25-metre (7.38 ft)
Code of Hammurabi, discovered in 1901, displays
Babylonian Laws prominently, so that no man could plead
their ignorance. The 18th-century BC mural of the
Investiture of Zimrilim and the 25th-century BC
Statue of Ebih-Il found in the ancient city-state of
Mari are also on display at the museum.
The Persian portion of Louvre contains work from the archaic
period, like the Funerary Head and the Persian Archers
of Darius I.[57][60]
This section also contains rare objects from
Persepolis which were also lent to
British Museum for its Ancient Persia exihibition in 2005.[61]
Greek, Etruscan, and Roman
The Greek, Etruscan, and Roman department displays pieces
from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the
Neolithic to the 6th century.[62]
The collection spans from the
Cycladic period to the decline of the Roman Empire. This
department is one of the museum's oldest; it began with
appropriated royal art, some of which was acquired under
Francis I.[57][63]
Initially, the collection focused on marble sculptures, such as
the
Venus de Milo. Works such as the
Apollo Belvedere arrived during the Napoleonic Wars, but
these pieces were returned after Napoleon I's fall in 1815. In
the 19th century, the Louvre acquired works including vases from
the Durand collection, bronzes such as the
Borghese Vase from the
Bibliothèque nationale.[54][62]
The archaic is demonstrated by jewellery and pieces such as
the limestone
Lady of Auxerre, from 640 BC; and the cylindrical
Hera
of Samos, circa 570–560 BC.[57][64]
After the 4th century BC, focus on the human form increased,
exemplified by the
Borghese Gladiator. The Louvre holds masterpieces from
the
Hellenistic era, including The Winged Victory of
Samothrace (190 BC) and the Venus de Milo, symbolic
of classical art.[63]
The long Galerie Campana displays an outstanding
collection of more than one thousand
Greek potteries. In the galleries paralleling the Seine,
much of the museum's Roman sculpture is displayed.[62]
The Roman portraiture is representative of that genre; examples
include the portraits of
Agrippa and
Annius Verus; among the bronzes is the Greek
Apollo of Piombino.
Casket, ivory and silver, Muslim Spain, 966
Islamic art
The Islamic art collection, the museum's newest, spans
"thirteen centuries and three continents".[65]
These exhibits, comprising ceramics, glass, metalware, wood,
ivory, carpet, textiles, and miniatures, include more than
5,000 works and 1,000 shards.[66]
Originally part of the decorative arts department, the holdings
became separate in 2003. Among the works are the Pyxide
d'al-Mughira, a 10th century ivory box from
Andalusia; the Baptistery of Saint-Louis, an engraved
brass basin from the 13th or 14th century
Mamluk period; and the 10th century
Shroud of Saint-Josse from Iran.[59][65]
The collection contains three pages of the
Shahnameh, an epic book of poems by
Ferdowsi in
Persian, and a Syrian metalwork named the Barberini Vase.[66]
Tomb of Philippe Pot, governor of
Burgundy under
Louis XI, by Antoine Le Moiturier
Sculpture
Yombe-sculpture, 19th century
The sculpture department comprises work created before 1850
that does not belong in the Etruscan, Greek, and Roman
department.[67]
The Louvre has been a repository of sculpted material since its
time as a palace; however, only ancient architecture was
displayed until 1824, except for
Michelangelo's
Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave.[68]
Initially the collection included only 100 pieces, the rest of
the royal sculpture collection being at Versailles. It remained
small until 1847, when Léon Laborde was given control of the
department. Laborde developed the medieval section and purchased
the first such statues and sculptures in the collection,
King Childebert and stanga door, respectively.[68]
The collection was part of the Department of Antiquities but was
given autonomy in 1871 under
Louis Courajod, a director who organized a wider
representation of French works.[67][68]
In 1986, all post-1850 works were relocated to the new Musée
d'Orsay. The Grand Louvre project separated the department into
two exhibition spaces; the French collection is displayed in the
Richelieu wing, and foreign works in the Denon wing.[67]
The collection's overview of French sculpture contains
Romanesque works such as the 11th century Daniel in the
Lions' Den and the 12th century Virgin of Auvergne.
In the 16th century, Renaissance influence caused French
sculpture to become more restrained, as seen in
Jean Goujon's bas-reliefs, and
Germain Pilon's Descent from the Cross and
Resurrection of Christ. The 17th and 18th centuries are
represented by
Étienne Maurice Falconet's Woman Bathing and Amour
menaçant and
François Anguier's obelisks.
Neoclassical works includes
Antonio Canova's
Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss (1787).[68]
Decorative
arts
The
Objets d'art collection spans the time from the Middle
Ages to the mid-19th century. The department began as a subset
of the sculpture department, based on royal property and the
transfer of work from the
Basilique Saint-Denis, the burial ground of French monarchs
that held the Coronation Sword of the Kings of France.[69][70]
Among the budding collection's most prized works were
pietre dure vases and bronzes. The Durand collection's 1825
acquisition added "ceramics, enamels, and stained glass", and
800 pieces were given by Pierre Révoil. The onset of
Romanticism rekindled interest in
Renaissance and
Medieval artwork, and the Sauvageot donation expanded the
department with 1,500 middle-age and
faïence works. In 1862, the
Campana collection added gold jewelry and maiolicas, mainly
from the 15th and 16th centuries.[70][71]
The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wing's first floor
and in the Apollo Gallery, named by the painter Charles Le Brun,
who was commissioned by Louis XIV (the Sun King) to decorate the
space in a solar theme. The medieval collection contains the
coronation crown of Louis XIV,
Charles V's sceptre, and the 12th century porphyry vase.[72]
The Renaissance art holdings include
Giambologna's bronze Nessus and Deianira and the
tapestry Maximillian's Hunt.[69]
From later periods, highlights include
Madame de Pompadour's
Sèvres vase collection and
Napoleon III's apartments.[69]
In September 2000, the Louvre Museum dedicated the
Gilbert Chagoury and Rose-Marie Chagoury Gallery to display
tapestries donated by the Chagourys, including a 16th-century
six-part tapestry suite, sewn with gold and silver threads
representing sea divinities, which was commissioned in Paris for
Colbert de Seignelay, Secretary of State for the Navy.
Painting
The painting collection has more than 7,500 works[73]
from the 13th century to 1848 and is managed by 12 curators who
oversee the collection's display. Nearly two-thirds are by
French artists, and more than 1,200 are Northern European. The
Italian paintings compose most of the remnants of Francis I and
Louis XIV's collections, others are unreturned artwork from the
Napoleon era, and some were bought.[74][75]
The collection began with Francis, who acquired works from
Italian masters such as
Raphael and
Michelangelo,[76]
and brought Leonardo da Vinci to his court.[13][77]
After the
French Revolution, the Royal Collection formed the nucleus
of the Louvre. When the d'Orsay train station was
converted into the
Musée d'Orsay in 1986, the collection was split, and pieces
completed after the
1848 Revolution were moved to the new museum. French and
Northern European works are in the Richelieu wing and Cour
Carrée; Spanish and Italian paintings are on the first floor
of the Denon wing.[75]
Exemplifying the French School are the early
Avignon Pietà of
Enguerrand Quarton; the anonymous painting of King Jean
le Bon (c.1360), possibly the oldest independent portrait in
Western painting to survive from the postclassical era;[78]
Hyacinthe Rigaud's Louis XIV;
Jacques-Louis David's
The Coronation of Napoleon; and
Eugène Delacroix's
Liberty Leading the People. Northern European works
include
Johannes Vermeer's
The Lacemaker and
The Astronomer;
Caspar David Friedrich's
The Tree of Crows;
Rembrandt's The Supper at Emmaus,
Bathsheba at Her Bath, and The Slaughtered Ox.
The Italian holdings are notable, particularly the
Renaissance collection. The works include
Andrea Mantegna and
Giovanni Bellini's Calvarys, which reflect realism
and detail "meant to depict the significant events of a greater
spiritual world".[79]
The High Renaissance collection includes Leonardo da Vinci's
Mona Lisa,
Virgin and Child with St. Anne,
St. John the Baptist, and
Madonna of the Rocks.
Caravaggio is represented by
The Fortune Teller and
Death of the Virgin. From 16th century Venice, the
Louvre displays
Titian's Le Concert Champetre, The Entombment
and The Crowning with Thorns.[80][81]
Three lion-like heads,
Charles le Brun, France, pen and wash on squared
paper, 1671
The La Caze Collection, a bequest to the Musée du Louvre in
1869 by
Louis La Caze was the largest contribution of a person in
the history of the Louvre. La Caze gave 584 paintings of his
personal collection to the museum. The bequest included
Antoine Watteau's Commedia dell'arte player of Pierrot
("Gilles"). In 2007, this bequest was the topic of the
exhibition "1869: Watteau, Chardin... entrent au Louvre. La
collection La Caze".[82]
Some of the best known paintings of the museum have been
digitized by the French Center for Research and Restoration of
the Museums of France.
Prints
and drawings
The
prints and drawings department encompasses works on paper.[83]
The origins of the collection were the 8,600 works in the Royal
Collection (Cabinet du Roi), which were increased via
state appropriation, purchases such as the 1,200 works from
Fillipo Baldinucci's collection in 1806, and donations.[54][84]
The department opened on 5 August 1797, with 415 pieces
displayed in the Galerie d'Apollon. The collection is
organized into three sections: the core Cabinet du Roi,
14,000 royal copper printing-plates, and the donations of
Edmond de Rothschild, which include 40,000 prints,
3,000 drawings, and 5,000 illustrated books. The holdings are
displayed in the Pavillon de Flore; due to the fragility of the
paper medium, only a portion are displayed at one time.[83]
Location, access and facilities
Map of Louvre museum and around, showing bus stops
and metro lines serving the area as well as parking.
The museum lies in the center of Paris on the Right Bank. The
neighborhood, known as the 1st arrondissement, is home to the
destroyed Palais des Tuileries. The adjacent
Tuileries Gardens, created in 1564 by Catherine de' Medici,
was designed in 1664 by
André Le Nôtre. The gardens house the
Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume, a
contemporary art museum that was used to store Jewish
cultural property from 1940 to 1944.[85]
Parallel to the Jeu de Paume is the Orangerie, home to the
famous
Water Lilies paintings by
Claude Monet.
The Louvre is slightly askew of the
axe historique (Historic Axis), a roughly eight-kilometre
(five-mile) architectural line bisecting the city. It begins on
the east in the Louvre courtyard and runs west along the
Champs-Élysées. In 1871, the burning of the Tuileries Palace
by the
Paris Commune revealed that the Louvre was slightly askew of
the Axe despite past appearances to the contrary.[86]
The Louvre can be reached by the
Palais Royal – Musée du Louvre
Métro or the
Louvre-Rivoli stations.[87]
The Louvre has three entrances: the main entrance at the
pyramid, an entrance from the
Carrousel du Louvre underground shopping mall, and an
entrance at the Porte des Lions (near the western end of the
Denon wing).
Under the main entrance to the museum is the
Carrousel du Louvre, a shopping mall operated by
Unibail-Rodamco. Among other stores, it has the first Apple
Store in France, and a
McDonald's restaurant, the presence of which has created
controversy.[88]
The use of cameras and video recorders is permitted inside.
Use of flashes is forbidden.
Gallery
-
-
Egyptian, stele, Priest burning incense
before Ra-Horakhty-Atum, ca. 900 BC
-
-
-
Etruscan amphora, Diomedes and Polyxena,
ca. 540–530 BC
-
-
-
-
Frankish, ivory, Christ between two apostles,
5th century
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
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See also
Notes
-
^
Sandler, Linda (25 February
2008).
"Louvre's 8.3 million Visitors Make It No. 1 Museum
Worldwide". Bloomberg.
Retrieved 17 April 2008.
-
^
"Fréquentation record en 2008 pour le musée du Louvre
contrairement au Musée d'Orsay". La Tribune
(France). 9 January 2009.
Retrieved 1 February 2009.
-
^
"Exhibition and museum attendance figures 2009".
London:
The Art Newspaper. April 2010.
Retrieved 20 May 2010.
-
^
"Le Louvre a accueilli 8,8 millions de visiteurs en
2011". Radio-Canada with Agence France-Presse.
3 January 2012.
Retrieved 15 April 2012.
-
^
Travel + Leisure.
"World's Most-Visited Museums".
Retrieved 31 October 2012.
-
^
"Louvre Website- Chateau to Museum, 1672 and 1692".
Louvre.fr. Retrieved
21 August 2011.
-
^
"Louvre Website- Chateau to Museum 1692". Louvre.fr.
Retrieved 21 August 2011.
-
^
a
b
Mignot, p. 32
-
^
a
b
Edwards, pp. 193–94
-
^ In
Larousse Nouveau Dictionnaire étymologique et
historique, Librairie Larousse, Paris, 1971, p. 430:
***loup 1080, Roland (leu, forme conservée
dans à la queue leu leu, Saint Leu, etc.);
du lat. lupus; loup est refait sur le fém. louve, où le
*v* a empêché le passage du *ou* à *eu* (cf. Louvre, du
lat. pop. lupara)*** the etymology of the word louvre
is from lupara, feminine (pop. Latin) form of
lupus.
-
^ In Lebeuf
(Abbé), Fernand Bournon, Histoire de la ville et de
tout le diocèse de Paris par l'abbé Lebeuf, Vol 2,
Paris: Féchoz et Letouzey, 1883, p. 296: "Louvre".
-
^
a
b
Edwards, p. 198
-
^
a
b
Chaundy, Bob (29 September
2006).
"Faces of the Week". BBC.
Retrieved 5 October 2007.
-
^
Mignot, p. 42
-
^
Nore, p. 274
-
^
a
b
Carbonell, p. 56
-
^
a
b
c
d
e
Nora, p. 278
-
^
Oliver, p. 21–22
-
^
Monaghan, Sean M.; Rodgers,
Michael (2000).
"French Sculpture 1800–1825, Canova". 19th
Century Paris Project. School of Art and Design, San
Jose State University.
Retrieved 24 April 2008.
-
^
Oliver, p. 35
-
^
a
b
c
d
Alderson, p.24, 25
-
^
a
b
c
Mignot, pp. 68, 69
-
^
McClellan, p. 7
-
^
Mignot, p. 52
-
^
a
b
Alderson, p.25
-
^ Mignot, p.
69. According to Mignot,
Mantegna's Calvary,
Veronese's The Wedding at Cana|The Marriage of
Cana, and Rogier van der Weyden's Annunciation
were not returned.
-
^
a
b
Mignot, pp. 52–54
-
^
a
b
Mignot, pp. 70–71
-
^ Alan
Riding, And the Show Went On: Cultural Life in
Nazi-Occupied Paris. Alfred A Knopf, New York: 2010.
p34.
-
^
Simon, p. 23[who?]
-
^
Simon, p. 177
-
^
Mignot, p. 13
-
^
Mignot, p. 66
-
^
a
b
"Online Extra: Q&A with the Louvre's Henri Loyrette".
Business Week Online. 17 June 2002.
Retrieved 25 September 2008.
-
^
"Œuvres". Musée du Louvre.
Retrieved 27 April 2008.
-
^
a
b
c
"New Boss at Louvre's helm". BBC News. 17
June 2002. Retrieved
25 September 2008.
-
^ Gareth
Harris (13 September 2012),
Islamic art, covered
Financial Times.
-
^ Carol
Vogel (19 September 2012),
The Louvre’s New Islamic Galleries Bring Riches to Light
New York Times.
-
^
http://www.academia.edu/2781939/Structural_Innovation_and_the_Stakes_of_Heritage_The_Bellini-Ricciotti_Louvre_Dpt_of_Islamic_Arts
-
^
a
b
c
Gumbel, Peter (31 July
2008).
"Sacre Bleu! It's the Louvre Inc.". Time Magazine.
Retrieved 25 September 2008.
-
^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Baum, Geraldine (14 May
2006).
"Cracking the Louvre's code — Los Angeles Times".
Los Angeles Times.
Retrieved 25 September 2008.
-
^
"Louvre, Organization Chart". Louvre.fr Official
Site. Retrieved
24 May 2008.
-
^
Matlack, Carol (28 July
2008).
"The Business of Art: Welcome to The Louvre Inc.".
Der Spiegel Online.
Retrieved 25 September 2008.
-
^ Lunn, p.
137
-
^
(French)Un
archéologue prend la direction du Louvre,
Le Monde du 03/04/2013.
-
^ Scarlet
Cheng (15 November 2012),
Louvre and San Francisco museums sign five-year deal
The Art Newspaper.
-
^ Gareth
Harris (13 September 2012),
Islamic art, covered Financial
Times.
-
^
a
b
Gentleman, Amelia (1
December 2004).
"Lens puts new angle on the Louvre". Guardian
(UK). Retrieved 27
February 2008.
-
^
Riding, Alan (6 March 2007).
"The Louvre's Art: Priceless. The Louvre's Name:
Expensive.". The New York Times.
Retrieved 24 April 2008.
-
^
"Rapport Matteoli, Le pillage de l'art en France pendant
l'occupation et la situation des 2000 oeuvres confiées
aux Musées nationaux, p. 50, 60, 69" (PDF).
Retrieved 21 August 2011.
-
^ Rickman,
p. 294
-
^ Merryman,
abstract
-
^
"Le Louvre se dit "satisfait" de la restitution des
fresques égyptiennes - Culture - Nouvelobs.com".
Tempsreel.nouvelobs.com.
Retrieved 21 August 2011.
-
^
a
b
c
Mignot, p. 92
-
^
"35,000 works of art". Musée du Louvre.
Retrieved 27 September 2008.
-
^
a
b
c
d
Mignot, pp 76, 77
-
^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Nave, pp.42–43
-
^
a
b
"Egyptian Antiquities". Musée du Louvre.
Retrieved 30 April 2008.
-
^
a
b
Mignot, pp. 119–21
-
^
"Decorative Arts". Musée du Louvre.
Retrieved 20 May 2008.
-
^
"Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia".
University of California Press. 2006.
Retrieved 12 November 2007.
-
^
a
b
c
"Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities". Musée du
Louvre. Retrieved 30
April 2008.
-
^
a
b
Mignot, pp. 155–58
-
^
Hannan, p.252
-
^
a
b
"Islamic Art". Musée du Louvre.
Retrieved 30 April 2008.
-
^
a
b
Ahlund, p. 24
-
^
a
b
c
"Sculptures". Musée du Louvre.
Retrieved 23 April 2008.
-
^
a
b
c
d
Mignot, 397–401
-
^
a
b
c
Nave, p 130
-
^
a
b
Mignot, pp. 451–54
-
^
"Decorative Arts". Musée du Louvre.
Retrieved 30 April 2008.
-
^
Lasko, p. 242
-
^
(French)
Pierre Rosenberg, Dictionnaire amoureux du Louvre,
Plon, Paris, 2007, p. 229.
-
^
Hannan, p. 262
-
^
a
b
Mignot, pp.
199–201, 272–73, 333–35
-
^ According
to
Giorgio Vasari, Michelangelo's
Leda and the Swan, (now lost) was acquired by
Francis I.
-
^
"Paintings". Musée du Louvre.
Retrieved 23 April 2008.
-
^ Mignot, p.
201
-
^ Hannan, p.
267
-
^
Mignot, p. 378
-
^
Hannan, pp. 270–278
-
^
www.louvre.fr – Musée du Louvre – Exhibitions – Past
Exhibitions – The La Caze Collection. Retrieved 23 May
2009.
-
^
a
b
Mignot, 496
-
^
"Prints and Drawings". Musée du Louvre.
Retrieved 23 April 2008.
-
^ Mroue,
p. 176
-
^ Rogers, p.
159
-
^
"How to get here". Louvre Museum.
Retrieved 28 September 2008.
-
^
"'Bad taste' cries as McDonald's moves into 'Mona Lisa'
museum". CNN. 7 October 2009.
Retrieved 11 May 2010.
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Alexander, Edward (1996).
Museums in motion: an introduction to the history and
functions of museums. Walnut Creek, Calif:
Published in cooperation with the American Association
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OCLC 33983419.
- Ahlund, Mikael (2000).
Islamic art collections: an international survey.
Richmond, Surrey, England: Curzon.
ISBN 0-7007-1153-8.
OCLC 237132457.
- Bowkett, Stephen;
Porter, Tom (2004).
Archispeak: an illustrated guide to architectural
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(2004).
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Sutherland (1893).
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(2006).
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External links
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