Steganography ()
is the art and science of writing hidden messages in such a way that no
one, apart from the sender and intended recipient, suspects the
existence of the message, a form of
security through obscurity. The word steganography is of
Greek origin and means "concealed writing" from the Greek words
steganos (στεγανός) meaning "covered or protected", and graphei
(γραφή) meaning "writing". The first recorded use of the term was in
1499 by
Johannes Trithemius in his
Steganographia, a treatise on cryptography and steganography
disguised as a book on magic. Generally, messages will appear to be
something else: images, articles, shopping lists, or some other
covertext and, classically, the hidden message may be in
invisible ink between the visible lines of a private letter.
The advantage of steganography over
cryptography alone is that messages do not attract attention to
themselves. Plainly visible encrypted messages—no matter how
unbreakable—will arouse suspicion, and may in themselves be
incriminating in countries where
encryption is illegal.[1]
Therefore, whereas cryptography protects the contents of a message,
steganography can be said to protect both messages and communicating
parties.
Steganography includes the concealment of information within computer
files. In digital steganography, electronic communications may include
steganographic coding inside of a transport layer, such as a document
file, image file, program or protocol. Media files are ideal for
steganographic transmission because of their large size. As a simple
example, a sender might start with an innocuous image file and adjust
the color of every 100th
pixel to
correspond to a letter in the alphabet, a change so subtle that someone
not specifically looking for it is unlikely to notice it.
History
The first recorded uses of steganography can be traced back to 440 BC
when
Herodotus mentions two examples in his
Histories.[2]
Demaratus sent a warning about a forthcoming attack to Greece by
writing it directly on the wooden backing of a wax tablet before
applying its beeswax surface.
Wax
tablets were in common use then as reusable writing surfaces,
sometimes used for shorthand.
In his work Polygraphiae
Johannes Trithemius developed his so-called "Ave-Maria-Cipher"
with which one can hide information in a Latin praise of God. "Auctor
Sapientissimus Conseruans Angelica Deferat Nobis Charitas Potentissimi
Creatoris" for example contains the concealed word VICIPEDIA.[3]
Techniques
Physical
Steganography has been widely used, including in recent historical
times and the present day. Known examples include:
- Hidden messages within
wax tablets — in ancient
Greece,
people wrote messages on the wood, then covered it with
wax upon
which an innocent covering message was written.
- Hidden messages on messenger's body — also used in ancient
Greece.
Herodotus tells the story of a message tattooed on the shaved
head of a slave of
Histiaeus, hidden by the hair that afterwards grew over it, and
exposed by shaving the head again. The message allegedly carried a
warning to Greece about Persian invasion plans. This method has
obvious drawbacks, such as delayed transmission while waiting for
the slave's hair to grow, and the restrictions on the number and
size of messages that can be encoded on one person's scalp.
- In the early days of the printing press, it was common to mix
different typefaces on a printed page due to the printer not having
enough copies of some letters otherwise. Because of this, a message
could be hidden using 2 (or more) different typefaces, such as
normal or italic.
- During
World War II, the French Resistance sent some messages written
on the backs of couriers using invisible ink.
- Hidden messages on paper written in
secret inks, under other messages or on the blank parts of other
messages.
- Messages written in
Morse code on knitting
yarn
and then knitted into a piece of clothing worn by a courier.
-
Jeremiah Denton repeatedly blinked his eyes in Morse Code during
the 1966 televised press conference that he was forced into as an
American
POW by his North Vietnamese captors, spelling out the word,
"T-O-R-T-U-R-E". This confirmed for the first time to the U.S.
Military (naval intelligence) and Americans that American POWs were
being tortured in North Vietnam.
- Messages written on envelopes in the area covered by
postage stamps.
- During and after World War II,
espionage agents used photographically produced
microdots to send information back and forth. Microdots were
typically minute, approximately less than the size of the
period produced by a
typewriter. World War II microdots needed to be embedded in the
paper and covered with an adhesive, such as
collodion. This was reflective and thus detectable by viewing
against glancing light. Alternative techniques included inserting
microdots into slits cut into the edge of post cards.
- During WWII,
Velvalee Dickinson, a spy for
Japan
in
New York City, sent information to accommodation addresses in
neutral
South America. She was a dealer in
dolls,
and her letters discussed the quantity and type of doll to ship. The
stegotext was the doll orders, while the concealed "plaintext" was
itself encoded and gave information about ship movements, etc. Her
case became somewhat famous and she became known as the Doll Woman.
- Cold War counter-propaganda. In 1968, crew members of the
USS Pueblo intelligence ship held as prisoners by
North Korea, communicated in sign language during staged photo
opportunities, informing the
United States they were not defectors, but were captives of the
North Koreans. In other photos presented to the US, crew members
gave "the
finger" to the unsuspecting North Koreans, in an attempt to
discredit photos that showed them smiling and comfortable.
Digital
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Image of a tree with a steganographically hidden image. The
hidden image is revealed by removing all but the two least
significant
bits
of each
color component and a subsequent
normalization. The hidden image is shown below.
Image of a cat extracted from the tree image above.
Modern steganography entered the world in 1985 with the advent of the
personal computers being applied to classical steganography problems.[4]
Development following that was very slow, but has since taken off, going
by the large number of steganography software available:
- Concealing messages within the lowest bits of
noisy images or sound files.
- Concealing data within encrypted data or within random data. The
data to be concealed are first encrypted before being used to
overwrite part of a much larger block of encrypted data or a block
of random data (an unbreakable cipher like the
one-time pad generates ciphertexts that look perfectly random if
one does not have the private key).
-
Chaffing and winnowing.
-
Mimic functions convert one file to have the statistical profile
of another. This can thwart statistical methods that help
brute-force attacks identify the right solution in a
ciphertext-only attack.
- Concealed messages in tampered executable files, exploiting
redundancy in the targeted
instruction set.
- Pictures embedded in video material (optionally played at slower
or faster speed).
- Injecting imperceptible delays to packets sent over the network
from the keyboard. Delays in keypresses in some applications (telnet
or
remote desktop software) can mean a delay in packets, and the
delays in the packets can be used to encode data.
- Changing the order of elements in a set.
- Content-Aware Steganography hides information in the semantics a
human user assigns to a datagram. These systems offer security
against a non-human adversary/warden.
- Blog-Steganography.
Messages are
fractionalized and the (encrypted) pieces are added as comments
of orphaned web-logs (or pin boards on social network platforms). In
this case the selection of blogs is the symmetric key that sender
and recipient are using; the carrier of the hidden message is the
whole
blogosphere.
- Modifying the echo of a sound file (Echo Steganography).[5]
- Secure Steganography for Audio Signals.[6]
- Image
bit-plane complexity segmentation steganography
- Including data in ignored sections of a file, such as after the
logical end of the carrier file.
- Making text the same color as the background in word processor
documents, e-mails, and forum posts.
Network
All information hiding techniques that may be used to exchange
steganograms in telecommunication networks can be classified under the
general term of network steganography. This nomenclature was originally
introduced by
Krzysztof Szczypiorski in 2003.[7]
Contrary to the typical steganographic methods which utilize digital
media (images, audio and video files) as a cover for hidden data,
network steganography utilizes communication protocols' control elements
and their basic intrinsic functionality. As a result, such methods are
harder to detect and eliminate.[8]
Typical network steganography methods involve modification of the
properties of a single network protocol. Such modification can be
applied to the PDU (Protocol
Data Unit),[9][10][11]
to the time relations between the exchanged PDUs,[12]
or both (hybrid methods).[13]
Moreover, it is feasible to utilize the relation between two or more
different network protocols to enable secret communication. These
applications fall under the term inter-protocol steganography.[14]
Network steganography covers a broad spectrum of techniques, which
include, among others:
- Steganophony - the concealment of messages in
Voice-over-IP conversations, e.g. the employment of delayed or
corrupted packets that would normally be ignored by the receiver
(this method is called LACK - Lost Audio Packets Steganography), or,
alternatively, hiding information in unused header fields.[15]
- WLAN Steganography – the utilization of methods that may be
exercised to transmit steganograms in Wireless Local Area Networks.
A practical example of WLAN Steganography is the HICCUPS system
(Hidden Communication System for Corrupted Networks)[16]
Printed
Digital steganography output may be in the form of printed documents.
A message, the
plaintext, may be first encrypted by traditional means,
producing a
ciphertext. Then, an innocuous covertext is modified in
some way so as to contain the ciphertext, resulting in the stegotext.
For example, the letter size, spacing,
typeface, or other characteristics of a covertext can be manipulated
to carry the hidden message. Only a recipient who knows the technique
used can recover the message and then decrypt it.
Francis Bacon developed
Bacon's cipher as such a technique.
The ciphertext produced by most digital steganography methods,
however, is not printable. Traditional digital methods rely on
perturbing noise in the channel file to hide the message, as such, the
channel file must be transmitted to the recipient with no additional
noise from the transmission. Printing introduces much noise in the
ciphertext, generally rendering the message unrecoverable. There are
techniques that address this limitation, one notable example is ASCII
Art Steganography.[17]
Digital Text
Unicode steganography uses lookalike characters of the usual
ASCII set
to look normal, while really carrying extra bits of information. If the
text is displayed correctly, there should be no visual difference from
ordinary text. Some systems, however, may display the fonts differently,
and the extra information would be easily spotted.
Alternately, hidden (e.g., control) characters, and redundant use of
markup (e.g., empty bold, underline or italics) can add embedded within
a body of text to hide information that wouldn't be visually apparent
when displayed, but can be discovered by examining the document source.
HTML pages can contain code for extra blank spaces and tabs at the end
of lines, as well as different colours, fonts and sizes, which will not
be visible when displayed. A more trivial example is white text on a
white background, which can be revealed by "selecting".
One such method is based on the non-printing Unicode characters
Zero-Width Joiner (ZWJ) and
Zero-Width Non-Joiner (ZWNJ).[18]
These characters are used for joining and disjoining letters in Arabic,
but can be used in Roman alphabets for hiding information because they
have no meaning in Roman alphabets, and because they are "zero-width"
and thus not displayed. The embedding of ZWJ in the cover-text
represents “1” and the embedding of ZWNJ represents “0”. Groups of
characters can be used to represent the letters A (giving it the code
“0”, and thus represented by ZWNJ) to Z (giving it the code “1011”, and
thus represented by ZWJ,ZWNJ,ZWJ,ZWJ). These character groups can be
inserted between each character of the cover-text, thereby hiding a
message.
Using Sudoku
puzzles
This is the art of concealing data in an image using
Sudoku
which is used like a key to hide the data within an image. Steganography
using sudoku puzzles has as many keys as there are possible solutions of
a Sudoku puzzle, which is 6.71×1021.
This is equivalent to around 70 bits, making it much stronger than the
DES method which uses a 56 bit key.[19]
Data
embedding security schemes
Steganographic System - The First Protection Level Scheme
Steganographic System - The Second Protection Level Scheme
Steganographic System - The Third Protection Level Scheme
Steganographic System - The Fourth Protection Level Scheme
The choice of embedding algorithm in the most cases is driven by the
results of the steganographic channel robustness analysis . One of the
areas that improves steganographic robustness is usage of a key scheme
for embedding messages.[20]
Various key steganographic schemes have various levels of protection.
Key scheme term means a procedure of how to use key steganographic
system based on the extent of its use. However, when the steganographic
robustness is increased a bandwidth of the whole embedding system is
decreased. Therefore the task of a scheme selection for achieving the
optimal values of the steganographic system is not trivial.
Embedding messages in steganographic system can be carried out
without use of a key or with use of a key. To improve steganographic
robustness key can be used as a verification option. It can make an
impact on the distribution of bits of a message within a container, as
well as an impact on the procedure of forming a sequence of embedded
bits of a message.
The first level of protection is determined only by the choice of
embedding algorithm. This may be the least significant bits modification
algorithm, or algorithms for modifying the frequency or spatial-temporal
characteristics of the container. The first level of protection is
presented in any steganographic channel. Steganographic system in this
case can be represented as shown at The First Protection Level Scheme
figure. There following notations are used: c - is a container
file; F - steganographic channel space (frequency or/and
amplitude container part, that is available for steganographic
modification and message signal transmission); SC -
steganographic system; m - message to be embedded; E -
embedding method; ĉ - modified container file.
The second protection level of the steganographic system, as well as
all levels of protection of the higher orders, is characterized by the
use of Key (password) via steganographic modification. An example of a
simple key scheme, which provides a second level of protection, is to
write the unmodified or modified password in the top or bottom of the
message; or the distribution of the password sign on the entire length
of the steganographic channel. Such key schemes do not affect the
distribution of messages through the container and do not use a message
preprocessing according to the defined key (see figure The Second
Protection Level Scheme). This kind of steganographic systems are
used in such tasks as, for instance, adding a digital signature for
proof of copyright. Data embedding performance is not changed in
comparison with the fastest approach of the first protection level
usage.
Steganographic data channels that use key schemes based distribution
of a message through the container and or preprocessing of an embedded
message for data hiding are more secure. When the third protection level
key scheme is used it affects the distribution of a message through the
container (see figure The Third Protection Level Scheme, where
F(P, L) – distribution function of a message within a container;
P – minimum number of container samples that are needed to embed one
message sample; L – step of a message distribution within a
container). Accordingly, the performance of container processing will be
lower than in the case of the first and the second key schemes. Taking
into account that P≥L, the simplest representation of the F(P,
L) function could be as following:
F(P, L) = cycle*L + step*P,
where cycle is a number of the current L section and
step is a number of the embedded message sample.
The difference between the fourth protection level scheme and the
third one is that in steganographic system there are two distribution
functions of a message within a container are used. The first is
responsible for a message samples selection according to some function
G(Q, N), and the second function F(P, L) is responsible
for position selection in a container for message sample hiding. Here
Q – the size of message block to be inserted; N – the size
(in bits) of one sample of the message file (see figure The Fourth
Protection Level Scheme).
Based on the above discussion it is possible to define a
classification table of key steganographic schemes:
Key Steganographic Schemes Classification
Steganographic system protection level |
Steganographic algorithm usage |
Key (password) usage |
Key influence on a message signal bits distribution per
container |
Key influence on a message signal bits selection and
distribution per container |
1 |
+ |
- |
- |
- |
2 |
+ |
+ |
- |
- |
3 |
+ |
+ |
+ |
- |
4 |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
Additional
terminology
In general, terminology analogous to (and consistent with) more
conventional radio and communications technology is used; however, a
brief description of some terms which show up in software specifically,
and are easily confused, is appropriate. These are most relevant to
digital steganographic systems.
The payload is the data to be covertly communicated. The
carrier is the signal, stream, or data file into which the payload
is hidden; which differs from the "channel" (typically used to
refer to the type of input, such as "a JPEG image"). The resulting
signal, stream, or data file which has the payload encoded into it is
sometimes referred to as the package, stego file, or
covert message. The percentage of bytes, samples, or other signal
elements which are modified to encode the payload is referred to as the
encoding density and is typically expressed as a number between 0
and 1.
In a set of files, those files considered likely to contain a payload
are called suspects. If the suspect was identified through
some type of statistical analysis, it might be referred to as a
candidate.
Countermeasures and detection
Detection of physical steganography requires careful physical
examination, including the use of magnification, developer chemicals and
ultraviolet light. It is a time-consuming process with obvious resource
implications, even in countries where large numbers of people are
employed to spy on their fellow nationals. However, it is feasible to
screen mail of certain suspected individuals or institutions, such as
prisons or prisoner-of-war (POW) camps. During
World War II, a technology used to ease monitoring of POW mail was
specially treated
paper
that would reveal
invisible ink. An article in the June 24, 1948 issue of Paper
Trade Journal by the Technical Director of the
United States Government Printing Office, Morris S. Kantrowitz,
describes in general terms the development of this paper, three
prototypes of which were named Sensicoat, Anilith, and
Coatalith paper. These were for the manufacture of post cards and
stationery to be given to German
prisoners of war in the US and Canada. If POWs tried to write a
hidden message the special paper would render it visible. At least two
US patents
were granted related to this technology, one to Mr. Kantrowitz, No.
2,515,232, "Water-Detecting paper and Water-Detecting Coating
Composition Therefor", patented July 18, 1950, and an earlier one,
"Moisture-Sensitive Paper and the Manufacture Thereof", No. 2,445,586,
patented July 20, 1948. A similar strategy is to issue prisoners with
writing paper ruled with a water-soluble ink that "runs" when in contact
with a water-based invisible ink.
In computing, detection of steganographically encoded packages is
called
steganalysis. The simplest method to detect modified files, however,
is to compare them to known originals. For example, to detect
information being moved through the graphics on a website, an analyst
can maintain known-clean copies of these materials and compare them
against the current contents of the site. The differences, assuming the
carrier is the same, will compose the payload. In general, using
extremely high compression rate makes steganography difficult, but not
impossible. While compression errors provide a hiding place for data,
high compression reduces the amount of data available to hide the
payload in, raising the encoding density and facilitating easier
detection (in the extreme case, even by casual observation).
Applications
Usage in
modern printers
Steganography is used by some modern printers, including
HP and
Xerox brand color laser printers. Tiny yellow dots are added to each
page. The dots are barely visible and contain encoded printer serial
numbers, as well as date and time stamps.[21]
Example
from modern practice
The larger the cover message is (in data content terms—number of
bits)
relative to the hidden message, the easier it is to hide the latter. For
this reason,
digital pictures (which contain large amounts of data) are used to
hide messages on the
Internet and on other communication media. It is not clear how
commonly this is actually done. For example: a 24-bit
bitmap
will have 8 bits representing each of the three color values (red,
green, and blue) at each
pixel. If
we consider just the blue there will be 28 different values
of blue. The difference between 11111111 and 11111110 in the value for
blue intensity is likely to be undetectable by the human eye. Therefore,
the
least significant bit can be used (more or less undetectably) for
something else other than color information. If we do it with the green
and the red as well we can get one letter of
ASCII
text for every three
pixels.
Stated somewhat more formally, the objective for making
steganographic encoding difficult to detect is to ensure that the
changes to the carrier (the original signal) due to the injection of the
payload (the signal to covertly embed) are visually (and ideally,
statistically) negligible; that is to say, the changes are
indistinguishable from the
noise floor of the carrier. Any medium can be a carrier, but media
with a large amount of redundant or compressible information are better
suited.
From an
information theoretical point of view, this means that the
channel must have more
capacity than the "surface"
signal requires; that is, there must be
redundancy. For a digital image, this may be
noise
from the imaging element; for
digital audio, it may be noise from recording techniques or
amplification equipment. In general, electronics that digitize an
analog signal suffer from several noise sources such as
thermal noise,
flicker noise, and
shot noise. This noise provides enough variation in the captured
digital information that it can be exploited as a noise cover for hidden
data. In addition,
lossy compression schemes (such as
JPEG)
always introduce some error into the decompressed data; it is possible
to exploit this for steganographic use as well.
Steganography can be used for
digital watermarking, where a message (being simply an identifier)
is hidden in an image so that its source can be tracked or verified (for
example,
Coded Anti-Piracy), or even just to identify an image (as in the
EURion constellation).
Use by terrorists
When one considers that messages could be encrypted
steganographically in
e-mail messages, particularly
e-mail spam, the notion of junk e-mail takes on a whole new light.
Coupled with the "chaffing
and winnowing" technique, a sender could get messages out and cover
their tracks all at once.
An example showing how terrorists may use
forum avatars to send hidden messages. This avatar
contains the message "Boss said that we should blow up the
bridge at midnight." encrypted with mozaiq using "växjö" as
password.
Rumors about terrorists using steganography started first in the
daily newspaper
USA
Today on February 5, 2001 in two articles titled "Terrorist
instructions hidden online" and "Terror groups hide behind Web
encryption". In July the same year, an article was titled even more
precisely: "Militants wire Web with links to
jihad". A
citation from the article: "Lately,
al-Qaeda operatives have been sending hundreds of encrypted messages
that have been hidden in files on digital photographs on the auction
site
eBay.com". Other media worldwide cited these rumors many times,
especially after the terrorist attack of
9/11, without ever showing proof. The Italian newspaper
Corriere della Sera reported that an Al Qaeda cell which had
been captured at the Via Quaranta mosque in
Milan had
pornographic images on their computers, and that these images had been
used to hide secret messages (although no other Italian paper ever
covered the story). The USA Today articles were written by
veteran foreign correspondent
Jack Kelley, who in 2004 was fired after allegations emerged that he
had fabricated stories and sources.
In October 2001, the
New York Times published an article claiming that al-Qaeda had
used steganography to encode messages into images, and then transported
these via e-mail and possibly via
USENET to prepare and execute the September 11, 2001 terrorist
attack. The Federal Plan for Cyber Security and Information Assurance
Research and Development,[22]
published in April 2006 makes the following statements:
- "...immediate concerns also include the use of cyberspace for
covert communications, particularly by terrorists but also by
foreign intelligence services; espionage against sensitive but
poorly defended data in government and industry systems; subversion
by insiders, including vendors and contractors; criminal activity,
primarily involving fraud and theft of financial or identity
information, by hackers and organized crime groups..." (p. 9–10)
- "International interest in R&D for steganography technologies
and their commercialization and application has exploded in recent
years. These technologies pose a potential threat to national
security. Because steganography secretly embeds additional, and
nearly undetectable, information content in digital products, the
potential for covert dissemination of malicious software, mobile
code, or information is great." (p. 41–42)
- "The threat posed by steganography has been documented in
numerous intelligence reports." (p. 42)
Moreover, an online "terrorist training manual", the "Technical
Mujahid, a Training Manual for Jihadis" contained a section entitled
"Covert Communications and Hiding Secrets Inside Images."[23]
By early 2002, a Cranfield University MSc thesis developed the first
practical implementation of an online real-time Counter Terrorist
Steganography Search Engine. This was designed to detect the most likely
image steganography in transit and thereby provide UK Ministry of
Defence Intelligence Staff a realistic approach to "narrowing the
field", suggesting that interception capacity was never the difficulty
but rather prioritising the target media.
Alleged use by intelligence services
In 2010, the
Federal Bureau of Investigation revealed that the
Russian foreign intelligence service uses customized steganography
software for embedding encrypted text messages inside image files for
certain communications with "illegal agents" (agents under
non-diplomatic cover) stationed abroad.[24]
See also
Citations
-
^
Pahati,
OJ (2001-11-29).
"Confounding Carnivore: How to Protect Your Online Privacy".
AlterNet. Archived from
the original on 2007-07-16.
Retrieved 2008-09-02.
-
^
Petitcolas, FAP; Anderson RJ; Kuhn MG (1999).
"Information Hiding: A survey" (pdf). Proceedings of the
IEEE (special issue) 87 (7): 1062–78.
doi:10.1109/5.771065.
Retrieved 2008-09-02.
-
^
Trimenius "Polygraphiae (cf. p. 71f)". Digitale Sammlungen.
Retrieved 2012-02-21.
-
^
The origin of Modern Steganography
-
^
Echo Data Hiding
-
^
Secure Steganography for Audio Signals
-
^
Krzysztof Szczypiorski (4 November 2003).
"Steganography in TCP/IP Networks. State of the Art and a
Proposal of a New System - HICCUPS". Institute of
Telecommunications Seminar.
Retrieved 17 June 2010.
-
^
Patrick
Philippe Meier (5 June 2009).
"Steganography 2.0: Digital Resistance against Repressive
Regimes". irevolution.wordpress.com.
Retrieved 17 June 2010.
-
^
Craig
Rowland (May 1997).
"Covert Channels in the TCP/IP Suite". First Monday
Journal. Retrieved 16
June 2010.
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^
Steven J. Murdoch and Stephen Lewis
(2005).
"Embedding Covert Channels into TCP/IP". Information
Hiding Workshop.
Retrieved 16 June 2010.
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^
Kamran Ahsan and Deepa Kundur
(December 2002).
"Practical Data Hiding in TCP/IP". ACM Wksp. Multimedia
Security. Retrieved 16
June 2010.
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^
Kundur D. and Ahsan K. (April 2003).
"Practical Internet Steganography: Data Hiding in IP".
Texas Wksp. Security of Information Systems.
Retrieved 16 June 2010.
-
^
Wojciech Mazurczyk and Krzysztof
Szczypiorski (November 2008).
"Steganography of VoIP Streams". Lecture Notes in
Computer Science (LNCS) 5332, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
Proc. of The 3rd International Symposium on Information Security
(IS'08), Monterrey, Mexico.
Retrieved 16 June 2010.
-
^
Bartosz Jankowski, Wojciech
Mazurczyk and Krzysztof Szczypiorski (11 May 2010). "Information
Hiding Using Improper Frame Padding".
arXiv:1005.1925 [cs.CR].
-
^
Józef Lubacz, Wojciech Mazurczyk,
Krzysztof Szczypiorski (February 2010).
"Vice Over IP: The VoIP Steganography Threat". IEEE
Spectrum. Retrieved 11
February 2010.
-
^
Krzysztof Szczypiorski (October
2003).
"HICCUPS: Hidden Communication System for Corrupted Networks".
In Proc. of: The Tenth International Multi-Conference on
Advanced Computer Systems ACS'2003, pp. 31-40.
Retrieved 11 February 2010.
-
^
Vincent Chu.
"ASCII Art Steganography".
-
^
A New Text Steganography Method By Using Non-Printing Unicode
Characters, Akbas E. Ali, Eng. & Tech. Journal, Vol.28, No.1,
2010
-
^
B.r., Roshan Shetty; J., Rohith;
V., Mukund; Honwade, Rohan; Rangaswamy, Shanta (2009).
Steganography Using Sudoku Puzzle. pp. 623–626.
doi:10.1109/ARTCom.2009.116.
-
^
Chvarkova, Iryna; Tsikhanenka,
Siarhei; Sadau, Vasili (15 February 2008).
"Steganographic Data Embedding Security Schemes Classification".
Steganography: Digital Data Embedding Techniques.
Intelligent Systems Scientific Community, Belarus.
Retrieved 25 March 2011.
-
^
"Secret Code in Color Printers Lets Government Track You; Tiny
Dots Show Where and When You Made Your Print",
Electronic Frontier Foundation, October 16th, 2005
-
^
Federal Plan for Cyber Security and Information Assurance
Research and Development National Science and Technology
Council, April 2006
-
^
The Jamestown Foundation
-
^
"Criminal complaint by Special Agent Ricci against alleged
Russian agents". United States Department of Justice.
References
External links
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Steganography at the
Open Directory Project
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Examples showing images hidden in other images
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Information Hiding: Steganography & Digital Watermarking. Papers
and information about steganography and steganalysis research from
1995 to the present. Includes Steganography Software Wiki list. Dr.
Neil F. Johnson.
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Detecting Steganographic Content on the Internet. 2002 paper by
Niels Provos and Peter Honeyman published in Proceedings of
the Network and Distributed System Security Symposium (San
Diego, CA, February 6–8, 2002). NDSS 2002. Internet Society,
Washington, D.C.
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Covert Channels in the TCP/IP Suite—1996 paper by Craig Rowland
detailing the hiding of data in TCP/IP packets.
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Network Steganography Centre Tutorials. How-to articles on the
subject of network steganography (Wireless LANs, VoIP -
Steganophony, TCP/IP protocols and mechanisms, Steganographic
Router, Inter-protocol steganography). By Krzysztof Szczypiorski and
Wojciech Mazurczyk from Network Security Group.
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Invitation to BPCS-Steganography.
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Steganography by Michael T. Raggo, DefCon 12, Aug. 1, 2004.
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File Format Extension Through Steganography by Blake W. Ford and
Khosrow Kaikhah