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WIKIMAG n. 10 - Settembre 2013
Labyrinth
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In
Greek mythology, the Labyrinth (Greek
λαβύρινθος labyrinthos, possibly the building complex at
Knossos)
was an elaborate structure designed and built by the legendary artificer
Daedalus
for King
Minos of
Crete at
Knossos.
Its function was to hold the
Minotaur, a mythical creature that was half man and half
bull and was eventually killed by the
Athenian
hero
Theseus. Daedalus had so cunningly made the Labyrinth that he could
barely escape it after he built it.[1]
Theseus was aided by
Ariadne,
who provided him with a skein of thread, literally the "clew", or
"clue", so he could find his way out again.
In colloquial English, labyrinth is generally synonymous with
maze,
but many contemporary scholars observe a distinction between the two:
maze refers to a complex branching (multicursal) puzzle with choices
of path and direction; while a single-path (unicursal) labyrinth
has only a single, non-branching path, which leads to the center. A
labyrinth in this sense has an unambiguous route to the center and back
and is not designed to be difficult to navigate.[2]
Although
early Cretan coins occasionally exhibit multicursal patterns,[3]
the unicursal seven-course "Classical" design became associated with the
Labyrinth on coins as early as 430 BC,[4]
and became widely used to represent the Labyrinth – even though both
logic and literary descriptions make it clear that the Minotaur was
trapped in a complex branching maze.[5]
Even as the designs became more elaborate, visual depictions of the
Labyrinth from Roman times until the Renaissance are almost invariably
unicursal. Branching mazes were reintroduced only when garden mazes
became popular during the Renaissance.
Labyrinths appeared as designs on
pottery
or
basketry, as
body
art, and in etchings on walls of caves or churches. The Romans
created many primarily decorative labyrinth designs on walls and floors
in tile or mosaic. Many labyrinths set in floors or on the ground are
large enough that the path can be walked. They have been used
historically both in group ritual and for private
meditation.
Ancient labyrinths
Pliny's
Natural History mentions four ancient labyrinths: the Cretan
labyrinth, an Egyptian labyrinth, a Lemnian labyrinth, and an Italian
labyrinth.
Labyrinth is a word of pre-Greek (Minoan)
origin, which the Greeks used for the palace of
Knossos
in Crete,
and it is derived from the
Lydian word
labrys
("double-edged axe").[6][7]
This was a symbol of royal power, which fits with the theory that the
labyrinth was originally the royal Minoan palace in Crete and meant
"palace of the double-axe". (the suffix -nth as in Korinth)
[8]
However the designation "The house of the Double Axe" cannot be limited
to the palace of Knossos, because the same symbols were discovered in
other palaces of
Crete.[9]
Labrys was a cult-word that was introduced from
Anatolia. In
Labraunda of
Caria the
double-axe accompanies the storm-god
Zeus Labraundos (Ζεύς Λαβρυάνδις).
It also accompanies the
Hurrian god of sky and storm
Teshub.
(His
Hittite and
Luwian name was Tarhun ) .[10]
A lot of these symbols were found in the Minoan palaces in
Crete,
and they usually accompanied goddesses. It seems that the double-axe was
the symbol of the beginning (arche) of the creation.[7]
The goddess of the double-axe probably presided over the
Minoan palaces, and especially over the palace of
Knossos.
A
Linear B (Mycenaean)
inscription on tablet Gg702 found in Knossos, was interpreted da-pu2-ri-to-yo
po-ti-ni-ja ( labyrinthoio potnoiai: to the Mistress of the
labyrinth), and she was undoubtedly the goddess of the palace.[7][11]
The word labyrinthos daburinthos may possibly show the
same equivocation between initial d- and l- as is found in
the variation of the early Hittite royal name
Tabarna / Labarna (where written t- may represent
phonetic d-).
The complex palace of
Knossos
in Crete
is usually implicated, though the actual dancing ground, depicted in
frescoes at Knossos, has not been found. Something was being shown to
visitors as a labyrinth at Knossos in the 1st century AD (Philostratos,
De vita
Apollonii Tyanei iv.34).[12]
The labyrinth is the referent in the familiar Greek patterns of the
endlessly running
meander, to give the "Greek key" its common modern name. In the 3rd
century BC, coins from Knossos were still struck with the labyrinth
symbol. The predominant labyrinth form during this period is the simple
seven-circuit style known as the classical labyrinth.
The term labyrinth came to be applied to any unicursal maze,
whether of a particular circular shape (illustration) or rendered as
square. At the center, a decisive turn brought one out again. In
Plato's
dialogue
Euthydemus,
Socrates describes the labyrinthine line of a logical argument:
"Then it seemed like falling into a labyrinth: we thought we
were at the finish, but our way bent round and we found
ourselves as it were back at the beginning, and just as far from
that which we were seeking at first." ... Thus the present-day
notion of a labyrinth as a place where one can lose [his] way
must be set aside. It is a confusing path, hard to follow
without a thread, but, provided [the traverser] is not devoured
at the midpoint, it leads surely, despite twists and turns, back
to the beginning. [13]
Cretan labyrinth
Knossos has been supposed since Classical times to be the site of
the labyrinth. When the
Bronze Age site at Knossos was excavated by explorer
Arthur Evans, he found various bull motifs, including an image of a
man leaping over the horns of a bull, as well as depictions of a
labrys
carved into the walls. On the strength of a passage in the Iliad,[14]
it has been suggested[citation
needed] that the palace was the site of a
dancing-ground made for
Ariadne
by the craftsman
Daedalus, where young men and women, of the age of those sent to
Crete as prey for the Minotaur, would dance together. By extension, in
popular legend the palace is associated with the myth of the Minotaur.
In the 2000s, archaeologists explored other potential sites of the
labyrinth.[15]
Oxford University geographer Nicholas Howarth believes that 'Evans’s
hypothesis that the palace of Knossos is also the Labyrinth must be
treated skeptically.'[16]
Howarth and his team conducted a search of an underground complex known
as the
Skotino cave but concluded that it was formed naturally. Another
contender is a series of underground tunnels at
Gortyn,
accessed by a narrow crack but expanding into interlinking caverns.
Unlike the Skotino cave, these caverns have smooth walls and columns,
and appear to have been at least partially man-made. This site
corresponds to an unusual labyrinth symbol on a 16th-century map of
Crete contained in a book of maps in the library of
Christ Church, Oxford. A map of the caves themselves was produced by
the French
in 1821. The site was also used by German soldiers to store ammunition
during the
Second World War. Howarth's investigation was shown on a documentary[17]
produced for the
National Geographic Channel.
Herodotus' Egyptian labyrinth
Even more generally, labyrinth might be applied to any
extremely complicated maze-like structure.
Herodotus, in Book II of his
Histories, describes as a "labyrinth" a building complex in
Egypt, "near the place called the
City of Crocodiles," that he considered to surpass the
pyramids in its astonishing ambition:
It has twelve covered courts — six in a row facing north, six
south — the gates of the one range exactly fronting the gates of
the other. Inside, the building is of two storeys and contains
three thousand rooms, of which half are underground, and the
other half directly above them. I was taken through the rooms in
the upper storey, so what I shall say of them is from my own
observation, but the underground ones I can speak of only from
report, because the Egyptians in charge refused to let me see
them, as they contain the tombs of the kings who built the
labyrinth, and also the tombs of the sacred crocodiles. The
upper rooms, on the contrary, I did actually see, and it is hard
to believe that they are the work of men; the baffling and
intricate passages from room to room and from court to court
were an endless wonder to me, as we passed from a courtyard into
rooms, from rooms into galleries, from galleries into more rooms
and thence into yet more courtyards. The roof of every chamber,
courtyard, and gallery is, like the walls, of stone. The walls
are covered with carved figures, and each court is exquisitely
built of white marble and surrounded by a colonnade. [18]
During the 19th century, the remains of the Labyrinth were discovered
"11½ miles from the pyramid of
Hawara,
in the province of
Faioum."[19]
The Labyrinth was likely modified and added upon "at various times. The
names of more than one king have been found there, the oldest" name
being that of
Amenemhat III.[19]
"It is unnecessary to imagine more than that it was monumental, and a
monument of more than one king of Egypt."[19]
In 1898, the
Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities described the
structure as "the largest of all the temples of Egypt, the so-called
Labyrinth, of which, however, only the foundation stones have been
preserved."[20]
Herodotus' description of the Egyptian Labyrinth inspired some
central scenes in
Bolesław Prus' 1895
historical novel,
Pharaoh.
Pliny's
Lemnian labyrinth
Pliny the Elder's Natural History (36.90) lists the legendary
Smilis,
reputed to be a contemporary of Daedalus, together with the historical
mid-sixth-century BC architects and sculptors Rhoikos and Theodoros as
two of the makers of the Lemnian labyrinth, which Andrew Stewart[21]
regards as "evidently a misunderstanding of the Samian temple's location
en limnais ['in the marsh']."
Pliny's
Italian labyrinth
According to Pliny, the tomb of the great Etruscan general
Lars Porsena contained an underground maze. Pliny's description of
the exposed portion of the tomb is intractable; Pliny, it seems clear,
had not observed this structure himself, but is quoting the historian
and Roman antiquarian
Varro.
Ancient labyrinths outside Europe
At about the same time as the appearance of the Greek labyrinth, an
essentially identical pattern appeared in
Native American culture, the
Tohono O'odham labyrinth which features
I'itoi,
the "Man in the Maze". The Tonoho O'odham pattern has two distinct
differences from the Greek: it is radial in design, and the entrance is
at the top, where traditional Greek labyrinths have the entrance at the
bottom (see below).
A prehistoric petroglyph on a riverbank in
Goa shows the
same pattern and has been dated to circa 2500 BC. Other examples have
been found among cave art in northern
India and
on a dolmen shrine in the
Nilgiri Mountains, but are difficult to date accurately. Early
labyrinths in India all follow the Classical pattern; some have been
described as plans of forts or cities.[22]
Labyrinths appear in Indian manuscripts and
Tantric texts from the 17th century onward. They are often called "Chakravyuha"
in reference to an impregnable battle formation described in the ancient
Mahabharata epic. Lanka, the capital city of mythic Rāvana, is
described as a labyrinth in the 1910 translation of
Al-Beruni's India (c.1030CE) p. 306 (with a diagram on the
following page).[23]
By the
White
Sea, notably on the
Solovetsky Islands, there have been preserved more than 30 stone
labyrinths. The most remarkable monument is the
Stone labyrinths of Bolshoi Zayatsky Island - a group of 13–14 stone
labyrinths on 0.4 km2 area of one small island. It is
considered that these labyrinths are 2,000–3,000 years old.[24]
Labyrinth as
pattern
In antiquity, the less complicated labyrinth pattern familiar from
medieval examples was already developed. In Roman
floor mosaics, the simple classical labyrinth is framed in the
meander border pattern, squared off as the medium requires, but still
recognisable. Often an image of the
Minotaur appears in the centre of these mosaic labyrinths. Roman
meander patterns gradually developed in complexity towards the fourfold
shape that is now familiarly known as the
medieval form. The labyrinth retains its connection with death and a
triumphant return: at
Hadrumentum in
North Africa (now
Sousse),
a Roman family tomb has a fourfold labyrinth mosaic floor with a dying
minotaur in the center and a mosaic inscription:
HICINCLUSUS.VITAMPERDIT "Enclosed here, he loses life" (Kern
169; Kerényi fig.31).
-
Earliest recovered labyrinth, incised on a clay tablet from
Pylos
-
Minotaur in Labyrinth—a Roman mosaic at
Conímbriga, Portugal
-
-
Wall maze in
Lucca Cathedral, Italy (probably medieval)
-
Illustration of
Jericho in a Farhi Bible (14th century)
-
-
-
Stone labyrinth on
Blå Jungfrun (Blue Virgin) island, Sweden
-
-
-
Portrait of a man with labyrinth design on his chest,
by
Bartolomeo Veneto, Italy, early 16th century
-
Minotaur at center of labyrinth, on a 16th-century gem
-
Labyrinth at St. Lambertus,
Mingolsheim, Germany, following the Roman paradigm
-
-
Modern rendition of Thomas Hill's 1579 garden design, [26]
itself based on a 15th-century design by
Averlino[27]
-
Three-dimensional Labyrinth
Medieval labyrinths and turf mazes
When the early humanist
Benzo d'Alessandria visited
Verona
before 1310, he noted the "Laberinthum which is now called the
Arena";[28]
perhaps he was seeing the cubiculi beneath the arena's missing
floor. The full flowering of the medieval labyrinth came about from the
twelfth through fourteenth centuries with the grand pavement labyrinths
of the gothic
cathedrals, notably
Chartres,
Reims and
Amiens in northern
France.
These labyrinths may have originated as symbolic allusion to the
Holy
City; and some modern thinkers have theorized that prayers and
devotions may have accompanied the perambulation of their intricate
paths.[29]
Although some books (in particular guidebooks) suggest that the mazes on
cathedral floors served as substitutes for pilgrimage paths, the
earliest attested use of the phrase "chemin de Jerusalem" (path to
Jerusalem) dates to the late 18th century when it was used to describe
mazes at
Reims and
Saint-Omer.[30]
The accompanying ritual, supposedly involving pilgrims following the
maze on their knees while praying, may have been practiced at Chartres
during the 17th century.[30]
However, no contemporary evidence supports the idea that labyrinths had
such a purpose for early Christians.[31]
The cathedral labyrinths are thought to be the inspiration for the many
turf
mazes in the UK, such as survive at
Wing,
Hilton,
Alkborough, and
Saffron Walden.
Over the same general period, some 500 or more non-ecclesiastical
labyrinths were constructed in
Scandinavia. These labyrinths, generally in coastal areas, are
marked out with stones, most often in the simple 7- or 11-course
classical forms. They often have names which translate as "Troy
Town". They are thought to have been constructed by fishing
communities: trapping malevolent
trolls or
winds in the labyrinth's coils might ensure a safe fishing expedition.
There are also stone labyrinths on the
Isles of Scilly, although none is known to date from before the
nineteenth century.
There are examples of labyrinths in many disparate cultures. The
symbol has appeared in various forms and media (petroglyphs,
classic-form, medieval-form, pavement, turf, and basketry) at some time
throughout most parts of the world, from Native
North and
South America to
Australia,
Java,
India, and
Nepal.
Modern labyrinths
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the
labyrinth symbol, which has inspired a revival in labyrinth building.
Countless
video games depict mazes and labyrinths.
On
bobsled,
luge, and
skeleton tracks, a labyrinth is where there are three to four curves
in succession without a straight line in between any of the turns.
In modern imagery, the labyrinth of Daedalus is often represented by
a multicursal
maze, in which one may become lost.
The Argentine writer
Jorge Luis Borges was entranced with the idea of the labyrinth, and
used it extensively in his short stories (such as "The House of
Asterion" in The Aleph). His use of it has inspired other
authors' works (e.g.
Umberto Eco's
The Name of the Rose, Mark Z. Danielewski's
House of Leaves). Additionally,
Roger Zelazny's fantasy series,
The Chronicles of Amber, features a labyrinth, called "the
Pattern", which grants those who walk it the power to move between
parallel worlds. The avant-garde multi-screen film,
In the Labyrinth, presents a search for meaning in a symbolic
modern labyrinth. In
Rick Riordan's series
Percy Jackson & the Olympians, the events of the fourth novel
The Battle of the Labyrinth predominantly take place within the
labyrinth of Daedalus, which has followed
the heart of the West to settle beneath the
United States. Australian author
Sara Douglass incorporated some labyrinthine ideas in her series
The Troy Game, in which the Labyrinth on Crete is one of several in
the ancient world, created with the cities as a source of magical power.
Lawrence Durrell's The Dark Labyrinth depicts travelers
trapped underground in Crete.
The labyrinth is also treated in contemporary
fine arts. Examples include
Piet Mondrian's Dam and Ocean (1915),
Joan
Miró's Labyrinth (1923),
Pablo Picasso's Minotauromachia (1935),
M. C. Escher's
Relativity (1953),
Friedensreich Hundertwasser's Labyrinth (1957),
Jean Dubuffet's Logological Cabinet (1970),
Richard Long's
Connemara sculpture (1971),
Joe Tilson's Earth Maze (1975),
Richard Fleischner's Chain Link Maze (1978),
István Orosz's Atlantis Anamorphosis (2000),
Dmitry Rakov's Labyrinth (2003), and
Labyrinthine projection by contemporary American artist Mo Morales
(2000). The Italian painter Davide Tonato has dedicated many of his
artistic works to the labyrinth theme.[32]
In February 2013 it was announced that
Mark Wallinger has created a set of 270
enamel plaques of unicursal labyrinth designs, one for every
tube station, to mark the 150th anniversary of the
London Underground; each will be numbered according to its position
in the route taken by the contestants in the 2009
Guinness World Record
Tube Challenge.[33]
Cultural meanings
Prehistoric labyrinths are believed to have served as traps for
malevolent spirits or as defined paths for ritual dances. In
medieval times, the labyrinth symbolized a hard path to God with a
clearly defined center (God) and one entrance (birth). In their
cross-cultural study of signs and symbols, Patterns that Connect,
Carl Schuster and
Edmund Carpenter present various forms of the labyrinth and suggest
various possible meanings, including not only a sacred path to the home
of a sacred ancestor, but also, perhaps, a representation of the
ancestor him/herself: "...many [New World] Indians who make the
labyrinth regard it as a sacred symbol, a beneficial ancestor, a deity.
In this they may be preserving its original meaning: the ultimate
ancestor, here evoked by two continuous lines joining its twelve primary
joints." .[34]
Labyrinths can be thought of as symbolic forms of
pilgrimage; people can walk the path, ascending toward salvation or
enlightenment. Many people could not afford to
travel
to holy sites and lands, so labyrinths and prayer substituted for such
travel. Later, the religious significance of labyrinths faded, and they
served primarily for entertainment, though recently their spiritual
aspect has seen a resurgence.
Many newly made labyrinths exist today, in
churches and
parks.
Labyrinths are used by modern
mystics to help achieve a contemplative state. Walking among the
turnings, one loses track of direction and of the outside world, and
thus quiets the mind. The Labyrinth Society[35]
provides a locator for modern labyrinths all over the world.
In addition, the labyrinth can serve as a metaphor for situations
that are difficult to be extricated from, as an image that suggests
getting lost in a subterranean dungeon-like world.
Octavio Paz titled his book on
Mexican
identity
The Labyrinth of Solitude, describing the Mexican condition as
orphaned and lost.
Christian use
Walking the labyrinth at Chartres Cathedral
Labyrinths, often of the Chartres design, began to appear on church
walls and floors around 1000 C.E., and there are even examples from
churches in the Roman Empire.[36]
The purpose of the labyrinths is not clear, though there are surviving
descriptions of French clerics performing a ritual Easter dance along
the path on Easter Sunday.[36]
Some books (guidebooks in particular) suggest that mazes on cathedral
floors originated in the medieval period as alternatives to pilgrimage
to the Holy Land, but the earliest attested use of the phrase "chemin de
Jerusalem" (path to Jerusalem) dates to the late 18th century when it
was used to describe mazes at
Reims and
Saint-Omer.[30]
The accompanying ritual, depicted in Romantic illustrations as involving
pilgrims following the maze on their knees while praying, may have been
practiced at Chartres during the 17th century.
[30]
In popular culture
- In 1980, the film
The Shining was released, directed by
Stanley Kubrick and starring
Jack Nicholson. The film depicted a large labyrinth at The
Overlook Hotel, in the form of a hedge maze. There was also a scale
model of this hedge maze in the lobby of the hotel.
- In 1986, the film
Labyrinth was released, directed by
Jim Henson, and starring
David Bowie and
Jennifer Connelly.
- In 2004, the film
Hellboy was released, directed by
Guillermo del Toro.
- In 2006, the film
Pan's Labyrinth was released, directed by
Guillermo del Toro.
- Daedalus's Labyrinth served as a central plot element in
Rick Riordan's 2008 novel,
The Battle of the Labyrinth.
- In
George Lucas`s film
Electronic Labyrinth: THX 1138 4EB, THX is escaping an
electronic labyrinth
- In the 2010 video game
God of War III, the Labyrinth is a gigantic aerial puzzle
that Daedalus trapped himself in. It was built to imprison the girl
Pandora (instead of the Minotaur) and the protagonist
Kratos unites the Labyrinth to free Pandora (which subsequently
kills Daedalus).
- The key to the tomb of Ashkanar in popular BBC TV series
Merlin seems to have been inspired from triple spiral
labyrinth.
- In the 2010 movie
Inception, directed by
Christopher Nolan, the concept of the labyrinth was introduced
on multiple levels. The maze-like dreams and experiences of the
characters suggest an outcome that returns to the beginning.
- The opening credits of the US television series
Homeland prominently feature two of the main characters,
Carrie and
Brody, apparently lost within a large hedge labyrinth; in one
scene, Carrie is wearning a minotaur-esque mask.
- Symphonic death metal band
Fleshgod Apocalypse's 3rd album, Labyrinth, is a concept
album about the Labyrinth of Knossos.
See also
Notes
-
^
Doob 1992, p. 36.
-
^ Kern, Through
the Labyrinth, p. 23. The usage restricting maze to
patterns that involve choices of path is mentioned by Matthews
(p. 2-3) as early as 1922, though he argues against it.
-
^ Kern, Through
the Labyrinth, 2000, item 43, p. 53.
-
^ Kern, Through
the Labyrinth, 2000, item 50, p. 54.
-
^ Penelope Reed
Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth, pp. 40–41.
-
^ (Λυδοὶ
γάρ ‘λάβρυν’ τὸν πέλεκυν ὀνομάζουσι). Plutarch,
Greek Questions, 45 2.302a.
-
^
a
b
c
F.Schachermeyer: Die Minoische
Kultur des alten Kreta pp. 161, 237,238
-
^
"Etymology of Labyrinth".
Retrieved 31 October 2010.
-
^ Criticised by
W.H.D. Rouse, "The Double Axe and the Labyrinth" The Journal
of Hellenic Studies 21 (1901), pp. 268-274, noting
the reappearance of the same inscribed symbols at the
newly-discovered palace a
Phaistos (p. 273).
-
^
Tarhun
-
^ She must have been
a
Great Goddess: Kerenyi, Dionysos, p. 91.
-
^ Kerenyi,
Dionysos, p. 101, n. 171.
-
^ Kerenyi,
Dionysos, p. 92f.
-
^
Homer.
"Iliad". Perseus Digital Library. Tufts University.
xviii.590-3.
-
^
Steve Connor (16 October 2009).
"Has the original Labyrinth been found?". The Independent.
-
^
"Maze of underground caves could be the original site of the
ancient Greek labyrinth".
Daily Mail. 17 October 2009
-
^
National Geographic Channel: The Holy Grail (and the Minotaur)
-
^
Herodotus,
The Histories, translated by
Aubrey de Sélincourt, Book II, pp. 160–61.
- ^
a
b
c
Leonhard Schmitz,
George Eden Marindin, Labyrinthus entry, in
William Smith et al. (editors),
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, published
1890.
-
^
Peck, Harry Thurston (chief editor). "Hieratic Papyrus.
(Twentieth Dynasty.)" in the
Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, published
1898, page 29.
-
^ Andrew Stewart,
One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works,
"Smilis."
-
^
Labyrinthos.net
-
^
Al-Beruni, India, (c.1030 CE), Edward C. Sachau
(translator), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co, London, 1910
Online version from Columbia University Libraries (Retrieved 5
December 2009)
-
^
Stone labyrinths of Bolshoi Zayatsky Island
Wondermondo.com (Retrieved 5 December 2009)
-
^ Kern, figure 541.
-
^ Kern, figure 472.
-
^ Kern, figure 345.
-
^ "quod nunc Harena
dicitur": Roberto Weiss, The Renaissance Discovery of
Classical Antiquity 1969:25.
-
^
"Labyrinth".
Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton
Company. 1913.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Wright,
Craig M. (2001).
The maze and the warrior: symbols in architecture, theology,
and music. Harvard University Press. p. 210.
ISBN 978-0-674-00503-7.
-
^
Russell, W. M. S.; Claire Russell
(1991). "English Turf Mazes, Troy, and the Labyrinth".
Folklore (Taylor and Francis) 102 (1): 77–88.
JSTOR 1260358.
-
^ Davide Tonato,
Labyrinth of Transformations (edited by Renzo Margonari),
Grafiche Aurora, Verona 1988
-
^
Brown, Mark (7 February 2013).
"Tube celebrates 150th birthday with labyrinth art project".
The Guardian. Retrieved 9
February 2013.
-
^
Schuster, Carl, & Edmund Carpenter
(1996). Patterns that Connect: Social Symbolism in Ancient &
Tribal Art. Harry N. Abrams. p. 307.
ISBN 978-0-8109-6326-9.
-
^
Labyrinth.Society.org
-
^
a
b
Kern,
Hermann (2000). "VIII. Church Labyrinths". Through the
Labyrinth: Designs and Meaning Over 5,000 Years. Prestel.
ISBN 978-3-7913-2144-8.
References
- Hermann Kern, Through the Labyrinth, ed. Robert Ferré and
Jeff Saward, Prestel, 2000,
ISBN 3-7913-2144-7. (This is an English translation of Kern's
original German monograph Labyrinthe published by Prestel in
1982.)
- Doob, Penelope
Reed (1992). The Idea of the Labyrinth: from Classical Antiquity
through the Middle Ages. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
ISBN 0-80142-393-7.
-
Herodotus,
The Histories, Newly translated and with an introduction by
Aubrey de Sélincourt,
Harmondsworth, England,
Penguin Books, 1965.
-
Karl Kerenyi, Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible
Life, Princeton University Press, 1976.
- Helmut Jaskolski, The Labyrinth: Symbol of Fear, Rebirth and
Liberation, Shambala, 1997.
- Adrian Fisher & Georg Gerster, The Art of the Maze,
Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990.
ISBN 0-297-83027-9.
- Jeff Saward, Labyrinths and Mazes, Gaia Books Ltd, 2003,
ISBN 1-85675-183-X.
- Jeff Saward, Magical Paths, Mitchell Beazley, 2002,
ISBN 1-84000-573-4.
-
W.H. Matthews, Mazes and Labyrinths: Their History and
Development, Longmans, Green & Co., 1922. Includes
bibliography. Dover Publications reprint, 1970,
ISBN 0-486-22614-X.
- Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers
and Extant Works.
-
Henning Eichberg, "Racing in the labyrinth? About some inner
contradictions of running." In: Athletics, Society & Identity.
Imeros, Journal for Culture and Technology, 5 (2005): 1. Athen:
Foundation of the Hellenic World, 169-192.
- Edward Hays, The Lenten Labyrinth: Daily Reflections for the
Journey of Lent, Forest of Peace Publishing, 1994.
-
Carl Schuster and
Edmund Carpenter, Patterns that Connect: Social Symbolism in
Ancient & Tribal Art, Harry N. Abrams, NY, 1996.
External links
- Saward, Jeff (2012).
"Labyrinthos". Labyrinthos.net.
-
The Labyrinth Society
-
Sunysb.edu, Through Mazes to Mathematics, Exposition by Tony
Phillips
-
Astrolog.org, Maze classification, Extensive classification of
labyrinths and algorithms to solve them.
-
Irrgartenwelt.de, Lars O. Heintel's collection of handdrawn
labyrinths and mazes
-
Begehbare-labyrinthe.de Website
(German) with diagrams and photos of virtually all the public
labyrinths in Germany.
-
Mymaze.de, German website
(German) and
Mymaze.de
(English) with descriptions, animations, links, and
especially photos of (mostly European) labyrinths.
-
Indigogroup.co.uk, British turf labyrinths by Marilyn Clark.
Photos and descriptions of the surviving historical turf mazes in
Britain.
-
Gwydir.demon.co.uk, Jo Edkins's Maze Page, an early website
providing a clear overview of the territory and suggestions for
further study.
-
Gottesformel.ch, "Die Kretische Labyrinth-Höhle" by Thomas M.
Waldmann, rev. 2009
(German)
(English)
(French)
(Greek). Description of a labyrinthine artificial cave system
near
Gortyn, Crete, widely considered the original labyrinth on
Crete.
-
Spiralzoom.com an educational website about the science
of pattern formation, spirals in nature, and spirals in the mythic
imagination & labyrinths.
-
Sanu.ac.rs, "The Geometry of History", Tessa Morrison,
University of Newcastle, Australia. An attempt to extend Phillips's
topological classification to more general unicursal labyrinths.
-
Labyrinth of Egypt Archaeological site reconstruction and 3D
diagrams based on the writings of Herodotus and Strabo.
-
[1] Report of expedition to Hawara in 2008 in search of the lost
Egyptian Labyrinth of Herodotus.
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