Syrian civil war
Part of the Arab Spring
For a war map of the current situation, see here.
Date 15 March 2011 – ongoing (2 years, 6 months and 2 weeks) Location Syria, with minor spillovers in neighboring countries Status Conflict ongoing
Belligerents
Syrian government Syrian Armed Forces Allied armed groups: Shabiha National Defense Force Jaysh al-Sha'bi Al-Abbas brigade  Iran[1]   Revolutionary Guards Foreign militants: Hezbollah[2] PFLP–GC[3] Others	Rebels Free Syrian Army Syrian Islamic Liberation Front[4] Ahfad al-Rasul Brigade Syrian Islamic Front[5] Al-Nusra Front[6] Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant[7][8]   Others Supported by:[show] Note: Occasional conflict between various rebel groups.	Democratic Union Party (PYD) Popular Protection Units (YPG) Others (For more on Kurdish involvement, see here)
Commanders and leaders
Bashar al-Assad   Maher al-Assad (WIA) Fahd Jassem al-Freij Ali Abdullah Ayyoub Issam Hallaq Ghassan Ismail Mohammad al-Shaar (WIA) Wael Nader Al-Halqi Abu Ajeeb Abu Hajar Muhammad Nasif Mihrac Ural Qasem Soleimani Hassan Nasrallah Abdul-Malik al-Houthi	Salim Idris   Mustafa al-Sheikh Riad al-Asaad (WIA)[17]   Ahmed Eissa al-Sheikh Ziad Haj Obaid[18] Hassan Aboud[19] Abu Musab[20] Abu Mohammad al-Golani (WIA)[21]	Salih Muslim Muhammad
Strength
Syrian Armed Forces: 178,000 (by Aug 2013)[22]   General Security Directorate: 8,000[22] Shabiha militiamen: 10,000 fighters[23] National Defense Force: 80,000 soldiers[24] al-Abbas brigade: 10,000 fighters[25] Jaysh al-Sha'bi: 50,000 fighters[26] Hezbollah: 1,500[27]–5,000[28] fighters  Iran: 150 military advisers[29] and possibly larger military Iranian presence [30][31][32]	Free Syrian Army: 50,000[4] - 80,000[33] Ahfad al-Rasul Brigade: 10,000 - 15,000[4] Syrian Islamic Liberation Front: 37,000[4] (by May 2013) Syrian Islamic Front: 13,000[4] (by May 2013) Al-Nusra Front: 6,000[4] (by June 2013)	15,000 fighters[34]
Casualties and losses
Syrian government 27,654[35] soldiers and policemen killed 17,824 militiamen killed[35] 1,000 government officials killed (government claim)[36] 3,500 soldiers captured[37] Hezbollah 171[35]–201[38] killed Iranian IRGC 13 killed[39][40][41][42]	21,850[35]–45,650[43] fighters killed* 979 protesters killed(opposition claim)[44] 9,000[37]–41,508[45] opposition fighters and supporters captured	161+ fighters killed[46][47]
100,000 killed overall (June 2013 UN estimate)[48]   83,263[45][49]–110,371[35] killed overall (September 2013 opposition estimate)** 642–1,548 foreign civilians killed   14 Iraqi soldiers killed[50][51] 5 Lebanese soldiers killed[52][53] 3 Turkish servicemen killed[54][55] 1 Jordanian soldier killed[56] 2.5–3 million internally displaced[57][58] 2,000,938 refugees (September 2013 UNHCR figure)[59] 130,000 missing or detained[60] *Number possibly higher due to the opposition counting rebels that were not defectors as civilians.[61] **Number includes foreign fighters from both sides, as well as foreign civilians

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The Syrian civil war, also known as the Syrian uprising^[62] or Syrian crisis (Arabic: الأزمة السورية‎),^[63] is an ongoing armed conflict in Syria between forces loyal to the Ba'ath government and those seeking to oust it. The conflict began on 15 March 2011, with popular demonstrations that grew nationwide by April 2011. These demonstrations were part of the wider Middle Eastern protest movement known as the Arab Spring. Protesters demanded the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad, whose family has held the presidency in Syria since 1971, as well as the end of Ba'ath Party rule, which began in 1963.

In April 2011, the Syrian Army was deployed to quell the uprising, and soldiers fired on demonstrators across the country.^[64] After months of military sieges,^[65] the protests evolved into an armed rebellion. Opposition forces, mainly composed of defected soldiers and civilian volunteers, resisted without central leadership.^[66] The conflict is asymmetrical, with clashes taking place in many towns and cities across the country.^[67] Late 2011 marked growing influence of the Islamist group al-Nusra Front within the opposition forces. In 2013 Hezbollah entered the war in support of the Syrian army.^[68][69] The Syrian government is further upheld by military support from Russia and Iran, while Qatar and Saudi Arabia transfer weapons to the rebels.^[70] By July 2013, the Syrian government controls approximately 30–40 percent of the country's territory and 60 percent of the Syrian population.^[71] In late 2012 UN report described the conflict as "overtly sectarian in nature"^[72] between Alawite shabiha militias and other Shia groups fighting largely against Sunni-dominated rebel groups,^[73] though both opposition and government forces denied that.^[74][75]

In June 2013, the death toll surpassed 100,000 according to the United Nations,^[48] and reached 120,000 by September 2013.^[76]

In addition, tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned and there are reports of widespread torture and terror in state prisons.^[77] International organizations have accused both government and opposition forces of severe human rights violations.^[78] UN inspections and probes in Syria have determined that the Syrian government's abuses are highest in frequency and largest in scale.^[79][80][81] Chemical weapons have been used in Syria on more than one occasion, triggering strong international reactions.^[82]

Background

Assad government

Syria became an independent republic in 1946, though Democratic rule was ended by a CIA-supported coup in March 1949, followed by two more coups that year.^{[83][84][85][86]} A popular uprising against military rule in 1954 saw the army transfer power to civilians; from 1958 to 1961 a brief union with Egypt replaced Syria's parliamentary system with a highly centralized presidential regime.^[87] The Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch government came to power in 1964 after a successful coup d'état. In 1966, another coup overthrew the traditional leaders of the party, Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar.^[88] General Hafez al-Assad, the Minister of Defense, seized power in a "corrective revolution" in November 1970, becoming prime minister. In March 1971, Assad declared himself President, a position he would hold until his death in 2000. Since then, the secular Syrian Regional Branch has remained the dominant political authority in a virtual single-party state in Syria, and Syrian citizens may only approve the President by referendum and – until the government-controlled multi-party 2012 parliamentary election – could not vote in multi-party elections for the legislature.^[89]

Bashar al-Assad, the President of Syria and Asma al-Assad, his wife - who is a British-born and British-educated Sunni Muslim,^[90] initially inspired hopes for democratic and state reforms; a "Damascus Spring" of intense social and political debate took place from July 2000 to August 2001.^[91] The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums or salons, where groups of like-minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues. Political activists such as Riad Seif, Haitham al-Maleh, Kamal al-Labwani, Riyad al-Turk and Aref Dalila were important in mobilizing the movement.^[92] The most famous of the forums were the Riad Seif Forum and the Jamal al-Atassi Forum. The Damascus Spring ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and for a campaign of civil disobedience.^[93]

Demographics

The Assad family comes from the minority Alawite religious group, an offshoot of Shi'ite Islam that comprises an estimated 12 percent of the total Syrian population.^[95] It has maintained tight control on Syria's security services, generating resentment among some Sunni Muslims,^[96] a sect that makes up about three-quarters of Syria's population. Ethnic minority Syrian Kurds have also protested and complained over ethnic discrimination and denial of their cultural and language rights.^[97][98] The Syrian government allegedly has relied mostly on Alawite-dominated units of the security services to fight the uprising.^{[citation needed]} Assad's younger brother Maher al-Assad commands the army's elite Fourth Armored Division, and his brother-in-law, Assef Shawkat, was the deputy minister of defense until the latter's assassination in the 18 July 2012 Damascus bombing.

Socioeconomics

Discontent against the government was strongest in Syria's poorer areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis.^[99] These included cities with high poverty rates, such as Daraa and Homs, rural areas hit hard by a drought in early 2011, and the poorer districts of large cities. Socioeconomic inequality increased significantly after free market policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the service sector, these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo.^[99] By 2011, Syria was facing a deterioration in the national standard of living and steep rises in the prices of commodities.^[100] The country also faced particularly high youth unemployment rates.^[101]

Human rights

The state of human rights in Syria has long been the subject of harsh criticism from global organizations.^[102] The country was under emergency rule from 1963 until 2011, effectively granting security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention.^[103] Bashar al-Assad is widely regarded to have been unsuccessful in implementing democratic change, with a 2010 report from Human Rights Watch stating that he had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power, although some minor aspects had seen improvement.^[104] All political parties other than the Ba'ath Syrian Regional Branch have remained banned, thereby leaving Syria a one-party state without free elections.^[103]

Rights of free expression, association and assembly were strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising.^[105] The authorities harass and imprison human rights activists and other critics of the government, who are oftentimes indefinitely detained and tortured in poor prison conditions.^[105]

Women and ethnic minorities have faced discrimination in the public sector.^[105] Thousands of Syrian Kurds were denied citizenship in 1962 and their descendants continued to be labeled as "foreigners".^[106] Several riots prompted increased tension in Syria's Kurdish areas since 2004.^[107][108] Occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and security forces have since continued.

Arab Spring

In December 2010, mass anti-government protests began in Tunisia and later spread across the Arab world, including Syria. By February 2011, revolutions occurred in Tunisia and Egypt, while Libya began to experience its own civil war. Numerous other Arab countries also faced protests, with some attempting to calm the masses by making concessions and governmental changes.

Uprising and civil war

Civil uprising (March–July 2011)

The conflict initially began as a civil uprising, evolved from initially minor protests, beginning as early as January 2011, as a response to the regional Arab Spring, government corruption, and human rights abuses. Large-scale unrest began on 15 March in the southern city of Daraa, sometimes called the "Cradle of the Revolution", and later spread nation-wide.^[109] The government responded to the protests with large arrests, torture of prisoners, police brutality, censorship of events, and some concessions. However, the protests continued to grow. In late-April, Assad began launching large-scale military operations against restive towns and cities. The operations involved the use of tanks, infantry carriers, and artillery, leading to a large number of civilian deaths.^[110]

Insurgency and civil war

Following military crackdowns, many soldiers defected to protect protestors. Many protestors also began to take up arms. The conflict has escalated into a civil war.

Advanced weaponry and tactics

Chemical weapons

The Syrian government has been accused of conducting several chemical attacks, the most serious of them being the 2013 Ghouta attacks.

The rebels have also been accused of conducting several chemical attacks, the most serious of which was the Khan al-Assal chemical attack. The Khan al-Assal attack took place On 19 March 2013, and was initially reported on Syrian state news agency, SANA. That missiles containing "chemical materials" may have been fired into the Khan al-Assal district in Aleppo and the Al Atebeh suburbs of Damascus, resulting in 25 dead. Both sides immediately accused each other of carrying out the attack, but neither side presented clear documentation.^[111][112] Russian experts later visited the site, found samples of sarin, and assigned responsibility for the attack to the rebels.^[113] UN weapons inspectors are also scheduled to visit the site in 2013.

On 29 April, another chemical attack was reported, this time in Saraqib, in which 2 died and 13 were injured. On 5 May, Turkish doctors said initial test show no traces of sarin had been found in the blood samples of victims.^[114] French intelligence acquired blood, urine, earth and munitions samples from victims or sites of attacks on Saraqeb, on 29 April 2013, and Jobar, in mid April 2013. The analysis carried out confirms the use of sarin.^[115]

On 13 June, the United States announced that there is definitive proof that the Assad government has used limited amounts of chemical weapons on multiple occasions on rebel forces, killing 100 to 150 people.^[116]

On 5 August, another chemical attack by the Syrian army was reported by the opposition, who documented the injured with video footage. The activists claim up to 400 people were effected by the attack in Adra and Houma of the Damascus suburbs. The content of the chemicals used has not been identified yet.^[117]

On 21 August, Syrian activists reported that Assad regime forces struck Jobar, Zamalka, 'Ain Tirma, and Hazzah in the Eastern Ghouta region with chemical weapons. At least 635 people were killed in a nerve gas attack. The Ghouta chemical attacks were confirmed after a three week investigation conducted by the UN, who also confirmed the main agent used in the chemical attacks was sarin gas.^[118] The Mission “collected clear and convincing evidence that surface-to-surface rockets containing the nerve agent sarin were used in the Ein Tarma, Moadamiyah and Zalmalka in the Ghouta area of Damascus.” Third party analysis of the evidence reported by the UN showed that the sarin gas was military grade, and the rockets that delivered the sarin were likely launched from Syrian army controlled territory.^[119][120]

On September 9 Russia urged Syria to put its' chemical weapons stockpile under international control. The initiative was expressed in the wake of American threat of attacking Syria after the chemical attack of August 21.^[121][122] On September 14, US and Russia announced in Geneva that they reached a deal on how Assad should give up his chemical weapons.^[123]

Cluster bombs

The Syrian army began using cluster bombs in September 2012. Steve Goose, director of the Arms division at Human Rights Watch said “Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs,” “The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward.”^[124]

Scud missile attacks

In December 2012, the Syrian government began using Scud missiles on rebel-held towns, primarily targeting Aleppo.^[125] On 19 February, four Scud missiles were fired, three landed in Aleppo city and one on Tell Rifaat town, Aleppo governorate. Between December and February, at least 40 Scud missile landings were reported.^[126] Altogether, Scud missiles killed 141 people in the month of February.^[127] The United States condemned the Scud missile attacks.^[128] On 1 March, a Scud missile landed in Iraq. It is believed that the intention was to hit the Deir Ezzor governate.^[129] On 29 March, a Scud missile landed on Hretan, Aleppo, killing 20 and injuring 50.^[130] On 28 April, a Scud missile landed on Tell Rifaat, killing four, two of them women and two of them children, SOHR reported.^[131] On 3 June a surface to surface missile, not confirmed as a Scud, hit the village of Kafr Hamrah around midnight killing 26 people including six women and eight children according to SOHR.^[132]

Suicide bombings

Suicide bombings began in December 2011; Al-Nusra Front has claimed responsibility for 57 out of 70 similar attacks through April 2013.^[68][133] Targeting government officials, the bombings have claimed numerous civilian casualties.^[134]

The Syrian army has itself claimed to have prepared 8,000 soldiers for suicide bombings in the event of NATO military intervention, including 13 kamikaze pilots.^[135]

Thermobaric weapons

Thermobaric weapons, also known as "fuel-air bombs," have been used by the government side during the Syrian civil war. Since 2012, rebels have claimed that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during the Battle of Aleppo and also in Kafr Batna.^[136][137] A panel of United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the rebellious town of Qusayr in March 2013.^[138] In August 2013 the BBC reported on the use of napalm bombs on a school in northern Syria.^[139]

Syrian government affiliated parties

Syrian Army

Shabiha

The Shabiha are unofficial pro-government militias drawn largely from Assad's Alawite minority group. Since the uprising, the Syrian government has frequently used shabiha to break up protests and enforce laws in restive neighborhoods.^[140] As the protests escalated into an armed conflict, the opposition started using the term shabiha to describe any civilian Assad supporter taking part in the government's crackdown on the uprising.^[141] The opposition blames the shabiha for the many violent excesses committed against anti-government protesters and opposition sympathizers,^[141] as well as looting and destruction.^[142][143] In December 2012, the shabiha were designated a terrorist organization by the United States.^[144]

Bassel al-Assad is reported to have created the shabiha in the 1980s for the government use in times of crisis.^[145] Shabiha have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad's regime";^[146] "gunmen loyal to Assad",^[147] and "semi-criminal gangs comprised of thugs close to the regime".^[147] Despite the group's image as an Alawite militia, some shabiha operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunnis.^[148]

In 2012, the Assad government created a more organized official militia known as the Jaysh al-Sha'bi, allegedly with help from Iran and Hezbollah. As with the shabiha, the vast majority of Jaysh al-Sha'bi members are Alawite and Shi'ite volunteers.^[149][150]

Hezbollah

General Secretary Nasrallah denied Hezbollah had been fighting on behalf of the Syrian government, stating in a 12 October 2012 speech that "right from the start the Syrian opposition has been telling the media that Hezbollah sent 3,000 fighters to Syria, which we have denied".^[151]

However, according to the Lebanese Daily Star newspaper, Nasrallah said in the same speech that Hezbollah fighters helped the Syrian government "retain control of some 23 strategically located villages [in Syria] inhabited by Shiites of Lebanese citizenship". Nasrallah said that Hezbollah fighters have died in Syria doing their "jihadist duties".^[152]

In 2012, Hezbollah fighters crossed the border from Lebanon and took over eight villages in the Al-Qusayr District of Syria.^[153]

Former secretary general of Hezbollah, Sheikh Sobhi Tfaili, confirmed in February 2013 that Hezbollah was fighting for the Syrian army.^[154]

On 12 May, Hezbollah, with the Syrian army, attempted to retake part of Qusayr.^[155] By the end of the day, 60 percent of the city, including the municipal office building, were under pro-Assad forces.^[155] In Lebanon, there have been "a recent increase in the funerals of Hezbollah fighters" and "Syrian rebels have shelled Hezbollah-controlled areas."^[155]

As of 14 May, Hezbollah fighters were reported to be fighting alongside the Syrian army, particularly the Homs Governorate.^[156] and Hassan Nasrallah has called on Shiites and Hezbollah to protect the shrine of Sayida Zeinab.^[156] President Bashar al-Assad denied in May 2013 that there were foreign fighters, Arab or otherwise, to be fighting for the government in Syria.^[157]

On 25 May, Nasrallah announced that Hezbollah is fighting in the Syrian civil war against Islamic extremists and "pledged that his group will not allow Syrian militants to control areas that border Lebanon".^[158] He confirmed that Hezbollah was fighting in the strategic Syrian town of Qusayr on the same side as Assad's forces.^[158] In the televised address, he said, "If Syria falls in the hands of America, Israel and the takfiris, the people of our region will go into a dark period."^[158]

Opposition affiliated parties

Syrian National Council

Formed on 23 August 2011, the National Council is a coalition of anti-government groups, based in Turkey. The National Council seeks the end of Bashar al-Assad's rule and the establishment of a modern, civil, democratic state. SNC has links with the Free Syrian Army.

In November 2012, the council agreed to unify with several other opposition groups to form the Syrian National Coalition. The SNC has 22 out of 60 seats of the Syrian National Coalition.^[159]

Syrian National Coalition

On 11 November 2012 in Doha, the National Council and other opposition forces united as the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces.^[160] The following day, it was recognized as the legitimate government of Syria by numerous Persian Gulf states. Delegates to the Coalition's leadership council are to include women and representatives of religious and ethnic minorities, including Alawites. The military council will reportedly include the Free Syrian Army.^[161]

The main aims of the National Coalition are replacing the Bashar al-Assad government and "its symbols and pillars of support", "dismantling the security services", unifying and supporting the Free Syrian Army, refusing dialogue and negotiation with the al-Assad government, and "holding accountable those responsible for killing Syrians, destroying [Syria], and displacing [Syrians]".^[162]

Free Syrian Army

The Free Syrian Army (FSA) is the main armed opposition in Syria. Its formation was announced in late July 2011 by a group of defecting Syrian Army officers. In a video, the men called upon Syrian soldiers and officers to defect to their ranks, and said the purpose of the Free Syrian Army was to defend civilian protesters from violence by the state.^[163] Many Syrian soldiers subsequently deserted to join the FSA.^[164] The actual number of soldiers who defected to the FSA is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 1,000 to over 25,000 by December 2011.^[165] The FSA functions more as an umbrella organization than a traditional military chain of command, and is "headquartered" in Turkey. As such, it cannot issue direct orders to its various bands of fighters, but many of the most effective armed groups are fighting under the FSA's banner.

As deserting soldiers abandoned their armored vehicles and brought only light weaponry and munitions, FSA adopted guerilla-style tactics against government security forces in urban areas. Initially, its primary target has been the Shabiha militias; most FSA attacks are directed against trucks and buses that are believed to carry security reinforcements. Sometimes, the occupants of government vehicles are taken as hostages, while in other cases the vehicles are attacked either with roadside bombs or with hit-and-run attacks. To encourage defection, the FSA began attacking army patrols, shooting the commanders and trying to convince the soldiers to switch sides. FSA units have also acted as defense forces by guarding neighborhoods with strong opposition presences, patrolling streets while protests take place, and attacking Shabiha members. As the insurgency grew, the FSA began engaging in urban battles against the Syrian Army.

In May 2013, Salim Idriss, one of the FSA leaders, acknowledged that rebels were badly fragmented and lacked the military skill needed to topple the government of President Bashar al-Assad. He said it was difficult to unify rebels because many of them were civilians and only a few of them had military service. Idriss said he was working on a countrywide command structure, but that a lack of material support was hurting that effort. He pointed out shortage of ammunition and weapons, fuel for the cars and money for logistics and salaries. “The battles are not so simple now,” Idriss said. “At the beginning of the revolution, they had to fight against a checkpoint. They had to fight against a small group of the army. Now they have to liberate an air base. Now they have to liberate a military school. Small units can’t do that alone, and now it is very important for them to be unified. But unifying them in a manner to work like a regular army is still difficult." He denied any cooperation with Al-Nusra Front but acknowledged common operations with another Islamist group Ahrar ash-Sham. In April the US announced it would transfer $123 million of aid through his group.^[166]

Mujahideen

In September 2013, US Secretary of State John Kerry stated that extremist groups make up 15–25 percent of rebel forces.^[167] Foreign fighters have joined the conflict in opposition to Assad. While most of them are jihadists, some individuals, such as Mahdi al-Harati, have joined to support the Syrian opposition.^[168]

The ICSR estimates that 2,000–5,500 foreign fighters have gone to Syria since the beginning of the protests, about 7–11 percent of whom came from Europe. It is also estimated that the number of foreign fighters does not exceed 10 percent of the opposition armed forces.^[169] The European Commission expressed concerns that some of the fighters might use their skills obtained in Syria to commit acts of terrorism back in Europe in the future.^[170]

The most significant group is Al-Nusra Front, headed by Abu Mohammed al-Golani, which probably accounts for up to a quarter of opposition fighters in Syria. It includes some of the rebellion's most battle-hardened and effective fighters, coming from Bosnia, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Tunisia, Palestine, Lebanon, Australia, Chechnya, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Azerbaijan, France, Iraq, Spain, Denmark and Tajikistan.^[171]

After the civil war in Libya had finished, fighters from there began moving to Syria through Turkey. It was reported by Syrian opposition that foreigners brought heavy weapons with them, including surface-to-air missiles. However, Libyans denied that claim.^[172] Abdulhakim Belhadj, head of the Tripoli Military Council, met with FSA leaders near the border with Turkey. The meetings were a sign of growing ties between new Libyan government and Syrian opposition. The arrangements included transfers of money and weapons, as well as training of the rebels by skilled fighters from Libya.^[173] One of the Libya's most known rebel commanders, Mahdi al-Harati, traveled to Syria in a group of 30 fighters, to form Liwaa al-Umma there.^[174]

In October 2012, various Iraqi religious sects join the conflict in Syria on both sides. Radical Sunnis from Iraq, have traveled to Syria to fight against President Bashar al-Assad and the Syrian government.^[175] Also, Shiites from Iraq, in Babil Province and Diyala Province, have traveled to Damascus from Tehran, or from the Shiite Islamic holy city of Najaf, Iraq to protect Sayyida Zeinab, an important mosque and shrine of Shia Islam in Damascus.^[175]

Hundreds of young Saudis were reported to travel through Turkey or Jordan in order to fight against Assad in Syria. In one documented case a judge encouraged a group of convicted young men to "fight against the real enemy, the Shia". Most of them joined Syrian rebels. Since convicted criminals cannot leave Saudi Arabia without Interior Ministry permission, it is suspected that officials silently allow them to travel to fight.^[176]

Government of Tunisia estimated that about 800 of its citizens were fighting alongside Islamist forces in Syria. However, unofficial sources at Interior Ministry put the number as high as 2,000.^[177]

Hundreds of Egyptian fighters are suspected to be involved in Syrian conflict. Some of them traveled there and back several times. The government officially confirmed 10 "martyrs".^[178]

8 Spanish citizens have been arrested in Ceuta. These individuals have been accused of training and organising the movement of Spaniards to fight in Syria, with the group having links to Al-Qaeda. Some 500 European citizens, according to EU counter-terrorism head Gilles de Kerchove, are fighting in Syria, two British citizens and an American woman have been killed in Syria so far.^[179]

In September 2013 leaders of 13 powerful rebel brigades rejected Syrian National Coalition and called Sharia law "the sole source of legislation". In a statement they declared that "the coalition and the putative government headed by Ahmad Tomeh does not represent or recognize us". Among the signatory rebel groups were Al-Nusra Front, Ahrar ash-Sham and Al-Tawheed.^[180]

Al-Nusra Front

The al-Nusra Front, being the biggest jihadist group in Syria, is often considered to be the most aggressive and violent part of the opposition.^[181] Being responsible for over 50 suicide bombings, including several deadly explosions in Damascus in 2011 and 2012, it is recognized as a terrorist organization by Syrian government and was designated as such by United States in December 2012.^[68]

In April 2013, the leader of the Islamic state of Iraq released an audio statement announcing that al-Nusra Front is its branch in Syria.^[182] The leader of Al Nusra, Abu Mohammad al-Golani, said that the group will not merge with the Islamic state of Iraq, but still maintain allegiance to Ayman al-Zawahiri, the leader of al-Qaeda.^[183]

The relationship between the Front and the indigenous Syrian opposition is tense, even though al-Nusra Front has fought alongside the FSA in several battles. The Mujahideen's strict religious views and willingness to impose sharia law disturbed many Syrians.^[184] Some rebel commanders have accused foreign jihadists of "stealing the revolution", robbing Syrian factories and displaying religious intolerance.^[185]

Al-Nusra Front has been accused of mistreating religious and ethnic minorities since their formation.^[186]

The estimated manpower of al-Nusra Front is approximately 6,000–10,000 people, including many foreign fighters.^[171]

Sectarianism and minorities

Both the opposition and government have accused each other of employing sectarian agitation. The successive governments of Hafez and Bashar al-Assad have been closely associated with the country's minority Alawite sect of Islam, whereas the majority of the population, and thus most of the opposition, is Sunni, lending plausibility to such charges, even though both leaderships claim to be secular.

Kurds

Kurds – mostly Sunni Muslims, with a small minority of Yezidis – represented 10% of Syria's population at the start of the uprising in 2011. They had suffered from decades of discrimination and neglect, being deprived of basic civil, cultural, economic, and social rights.^[187]:7 When protests began, Assad's government finally granted citizenship to an estimated 200,000 stateless Kurds, in an effort to try and neutralize potential Kurdish opposition.^[188] This concession, combined with Turkish endorsement of the opposition and Kurdish under-representation in the Syrian National Council, has resulted in Kurds participating in the civil war in smaller numbers than their Syrian Arab Sunni counterparts.^[188] Consequently, violence and state repression in Kurdish areas has been less severe.^[188] In terms of a post-Assad Syria, Kurds reportedly desire a degree of autonomy within a decentralized state.^[189]

Since the outset of the civil war, numerous Kurdish political parties have organised themselves into an umbrella organisation, the Kurdish National Council. Until October 2011, most of these parties were members of the NCC. After October 2011, only the PYD remained in the NCC, holding a more moderate stance regarding the Assad government.

The conflict between the Kurdish People's Protection Units (YPG) and Islamists groups such as al-Nusra Front have escalated since a group of Kurds expelled Islamists from the border town of Ras al-Ain.^[190]

Palestinians

The reaction of the approximately 500,000 Palestinians living in Syria to the conflict has been mixed.^[191] Syria's Palestinian community largely remained neutral in the early days of the uprising.^[192] Ongoing government attacks and shelling have caused any pro-government sympathies among the Palestinians in Syria to dwindle severely.^[191] According to the UN, 75% of the Palestinians in Syria have been affected by the uprising, and more than 600 of them have been killed.^[193] Although many Palestinians are appreciative of the civil rights given to them by the Syrian government, in comparison to other Arab states, these same rights have allowed the younger generation of Palestinians to be "raised essentially as Syrians" who "find it hard not to be swept up in the fervor on the streets", according to the New York Times.^[194]

While major Palestinian factions such as Hamas have turned against the Syrian government, other groups, particularly the PFLP-General Command (PFLP-GC), have remained supportive. The PFLP-GC has been accused by pro-rebel Palestinians of actively participating in the conflict as secret police in the refugee camps.^[194] In late October 2012, pro-rebel Palestinians formed the so-called Storm Brigade with the task of wresting control of the Yarmouk Camp in Damascus from pro-government groups.^[195]

Christians

Prior to the eruption of the Syrian civil war, Christian denominations used to compose about 1.7 million people within the Syrian population of about 22 million (roughly 9%), if including the Christian Refugees of Iraq. The Christians of Syria are mainly composed of Arab Christians belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church and Greek Catholic Church and ethnic Assyro-Chaldeans, belonging to Syriac Orthodox, Assyrian Church of the East and Chaldean Catholic Churches. Christians are generally considered to have a favorable situation under the Assad regime, considered to be "protector" of minorities. Numerous abuses were recorded by the opposition forces against Christians as a result, most notably by Mujahedeen units. Unknown, but significant numbers of Christians, have fled the country since 2011, relocating to Lebanon and Europe.

International reaction

The conflict in Syria has received significant international attention. The Arab League, European Union, the United Nations,^[196] and many Western governments condemned the Syrian government's violent response to the protests, and many expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise free speech.^[197] Initially, many Middle Eastern governments expressed support for Assad, but they switched sides as the death toll mounted. Both the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspended Syria's membership. On 4 October 2011, Russia and China vetoed a Western-drafted resolution which would have threatened the Syrian government with targeted sanctions if it continued military actions against protestors.^[198]

Humanitarian help

The international humanitarian response to the conflict in Syria is coordinated by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) in accordance with General Assembly Resolution 46/182.^[199] The primary framework for this coordination is the Syria Humanitarian Assistance Response Plan (SHARP) which appealed for USD 1.41 billion to meet the humanitarian needs of Syrians affected by the conflict. ^[200] Official United Nations data on the humanitarian situation and response is available at http://syria.unocha.org/; an official website managed by UNOCHA Syria (Amman).

Financial information on the response to the SHARP, as well as assistance to refugees and for cross-border operations, can be found on UNOCHA's Financial Tracking Service. As at 18 September 2013 the top ten donors to Syria were: United States, European Commission, Kuwait, United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, Japan, Australia, Saudi Arabia and Denmark. ^[201] USAID and other government agencies in US delivered nearly $385 million of aid items to Syria in 2012 and 2013. The United States is providing food aid, medical supplies, emergency and basic health care, shelter materials, clean water, hygiene education and supplies, and other relief supplies.^[202] Islamic Relief has stocked 30 hospitals and sent hundreds of thousands of medical and food parcels.^[203]

Other countries in the region have also contributed various levels of aid. Iran has been exporting between 500 and 800 tonnes of flour daily to Syria.^[204] Israel has granted special entry permits for over 100 wounded Syrians to be treated at Israeli medical facilities, and has set up a field hospital on the Syrian border.^{[205][206][207]} On 26 April 2013 a humanitarian convoy, inspired by Gaza Flotilla, departed from Turkey to Syria. Called Hayat ("Life"), it is set to deliver aid items to IDPs inside Syria and refugees in neighboring countries: Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq and Egypt.^[208]

The World Health Organization has reported that 35% of the country's hospitals are out of service and, depending upon the region, up to 70% of the health care professionals have fled. Cases of diarrhoea and hepatitis-A have increased by more than twofold since the beginning of the year. Due to the fighting the normal vaccination programs cannot be undertaken. The displaced refugees also may pose a risk to the countries to which they have fled.^[209]

Foreign involvement

The Syrian civil war has received significant international attention, and both the Syrian government and the opposition have received support, militarily and diplomatically, from foreign countries. The main Syrian opposition body - the Syrian coalition receives logistic and political support from major Sunni states in the Middle East, most notably Turkey, Qatar and Saudi Arabia; all the three major supporting states however have not contribute any troops for direct involvement in the war, though Turkey was involved in a number of border incidents with Syrian Army; limited political support has also been provided by France, Britain and US. The major Syrian Kurdish opposition group, the PYD, was reported to get logistic and training support from Iraqi Kurdistan. Islamist militants in Syria were reported to receive support from private funders, mainly in the Persian Gulf area, as well as from Al-Qaeda in Iraq. The major parties supporting the Syrian Government are Iran and Hezbollah. Both of these are involved in the war politically and logistically by providing military equipment, training and battle troops. The Syrian government has also received arms and political support from Russia.

Video footage

Between January 2012 and September 2013, over a million videos documenting the war have been uploaded, and they have received hundreds of millions of views.^[210] The Wall Street Journal states that the "unprecedented confluence of two technologies—cellphone cams and social media—has produced, via the instant upload, a new phenomenon: the YouTube war." The New York Times states that online videos have "allowed a widening war to be documented like no other."^[211]

Impact

Deaths

Estimates of deaths in the conflict vary widely, with figures, per opposition activist groups, ranging from 83,260 and 110,370.^{[35][45][49][212]} On 2 January 2013, the United Nations stated that 60,000 had been killed since the civil war began, with UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay saying "The number of casualties is much higher than we expected, and is truly shocking."^[213] Four months later, the UN's updated figure for the death toll had reached 80,000.^[214] On 13 June the UN released an updated figure of people killed since fighting began, the figure being exactly 92,901, for up to the end of April 2013. Navi Pillay, UN high commissioner for human rights, stated that: "This is most likely a minimum casualty figure." The real toll was guessed to be over 100,000.^[48][215] Some areas of the country have been affected disproportionately by the war; by some estimates, as many as a third of all deaths have occurred in the city of Homs.^[216]

One problem has been determining the number of "armed combatants" who have died, due to some sources counting rebel fighters who were not government defectors as civilians.^[217] At least half of those killed have been estimated to be combatants from both sides, including more than 15,300 government soldiers. In addition, UNICEF reported that over 500 children had been killed by early February 2012,^[218] and another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons;^[219] both of these claims have been contested by the Syrian government. Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners are known to have died under torture.^[220] In mid-October 2012, the opposition activist group SOHR reported the number of children killed in the conflict had risen to 2,300,^[221] and in March 2013, opposition sources stated that over 5,000 children had been killed.^[45] SOHR's methodology for counting civilian victims has been questioned, as the organisation includes opposition combatants among the number of civilian casualties, as long as these are not former members of the military.^[222]

Refugees

The violence in Syria has caused millions to flee their homes. In August 2012, the United Nations said more than one million people were internally displaced,^[223] and in September 2013, the UN reported that more than 6.5 million Syrians had been displaced, with 2 million fleeing to neighboring countries and 1 in 3 refugees seeking safety in Lebanon.^[224] Others have fled to Jordan, Turkey, and Iraq. Turkey has accepted 400,000 Syrian refugees, half of whom are spread around a dozen camps placed under the direct authority of the Turkish Government. Satellite images confirmed that the first Syrian camps appeared in Turkey in July 2011, shortly after the towns of Deraa, Homs and Hama were besieged.^[225] On 9 October 2012, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reported that the number of external Syrian refugees stood at between 355,000 to 500,000.^[226] In September 2013, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded 2 million.^[227]

Human rights violations

Human rights violations have been committed by both the government and the rebels. UN investigations have concluded that the government's abuses are the greatest in both gravity and scale. U.N. commission investigating human rights abuses in Syria. Confirms at least 9 intentional mass killing, 2012 to mid-July 2013, identifying the perpetrator as Syrian government and its supporters in eight cases, and the opposition in one.^[228]

Economy

By July 2013, the Syrian economy has shrunk 45 percent since the start of the conflict. Unemployment increased fivefold, the value of the Syrian currency decreased to one-sixth its pre-war value, and the public sector lost 15 billion US dollars.^[229][230]

Crime wave

As the conflict has expanded across Syria, many cities have been engulfed in a wave of crime as fighting caused the disintegration of much of the civilian state, and many police stations stopped functioning. Rates of thievery increased, with criminals looting houses and stores. Rates of kidnappings increased as well. Rebel fighters were sighted stealing cars and destroying an Aleppo restaurant in which Syrian soldiers had eaten.^[231]

By July 2012, the human rights group Women Under Siege had documented over 100 cases of rape and sexual assault during the conflict, with many of these crimes believed to be perpetrated by the Shabiha and other pro-government militias. Victims included men, women, and children, with about 80% of the known victims being women and girls.^[232]

Criminal networks have been used by both the government and the opposition during the conflict. Facing international sanctions, the Syrian government relied on criminal organizations to smuggle goods and money in and out of the country. The economic downturn caused by the conflict and sanctions also led to lower wages for Shabiha members. In response, some Shabiha members began stealing civilian properties, and engaging in kidnappings.^[140]

Rebel forces sometimes relied on criminal networks to obtain weapons and supplies. Black market weapon prices in Syria's neighboring countries have significantly increased since the start of the conflict. To generate funds to purchase arms, some rebel groups have turned towards extortion, stealing, and kidnapping.^[140]

Cultural heritage

The civil war has caused significant damage to Syria's cultural heritage, including World Heritage Sites. Destruction of antiquities has been caused by shelling, army entrenchment and looting at various tells, museums, and monuments.^[233] A group called Syrian Archaeological Heritage Under Threat is monitoring and recording the destruction in an attempt to create a list of heritage sites damaged during the war and gain global support for the protection and preservation of Syrian archaeology and architecture.^[234] An air raid on Syria's famed Krak des Chevaliers castle, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has damaged one of the fortress's towers. The footage shows a huge blast as a tower of the Crusader castle appears to take a direct hit, throwing up large clouds of smoke and scattering debris in the air. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights could not confirm direct hits on the castle, but said there were reports of three air strikes in the area on Friday, 11 July 2013.^{[citation needed]}

Art

The war has produced its own particular artwork. A late-Summer 2013 exhibition in London at the P21 Gallery was able to show some of this work.^[235]

See also

References

Further reading

• Hinnebusch, Raymond (2012). "Syria: From 'Authoritarian Upgrading' to Revolution?". International Affairs 88 (1): 95–113. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x.
• International Crisis Group (13 July 2011). "Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (VII): The Syrian Regimes Slow-Motion Suicide" (PDF). Middle East/North Africa Report N°109. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
• Landis, Joshua (2012). "The Syrian Uprising of 2011: Why the Asad Regime Is Likely to Survive to 2013". Middle East Policy 19 (1): 72–84. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4967.2012.00524.x.
• Lawson, Fred Haley, ed. (1 February 2010). Demystifying Syria. Saqi. ISBN 978-0-86356-654-7.
• Rashdan, Abdelrahman. Syrians Crushed in a Complex International Game. OnIslam.net. 21 March 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
• Van Dam, Nikolaos (15 July 2011). The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba'ath Party. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1-84885-760-8.
• Wright, Robin (2008). Dreams and Shadows: The Future of the Middle East. New York: Penguin Press. pp. 212–261. ISBN 1-59420-111-0.
• Ziadeh, Radwan (2011). Power and Policy in Syria: Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations and Democracy in the Modern Middle East. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-434-5.

External links

Find more about the Syrian civil war at Wikipedia's sister projects
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• Syrian uprising: A year in turmoil at The Washington Post
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• Syria collected news and commentary at The Guardian
• Syria collected news and commentary at The New York Times
• The ICRC in Syria, International Committee of the Red Cross
• FAO - Syria crisis
• Syria news, all the latest and breaking Syria news at The Daily Telegraph
• Syria collected coverage at Al Jazeera English
• Coverage of the alleged chemical attack and the potential U.S. strike on Syria at CBS News.