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WIKIMAG n. 11 - Ottobre 2013
Muhammad (Maometto)
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Islamic Prophet
Muhammad |
|
Born |
Muḥammad ibn `Abd Allāh
c.
570
Mecca,
Makkah,
Arabia
(present-day
Saudi Arabia) |
Died |
8 June 632 (aged 62 or 63)
Medina,
Hejaz,
Arabia
(present-day Saudi Arabia) |
Resting place |
Tomb under the
Green Dome of
Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at Medina, Hejaz, present-day Saudi
Arabia |
Other names |
Abu al-Qasim (Kunya),
Also see
Names of Muhammad |
Ethnicity |
Arab |
Religion |
Islam |
Spouse(s) |
Wives:
Khadijah bint Khuwaylid (595–619)
Sawda bint Zamʿa (619–632)
Aisha
bint Abi Bakr (619–632)
Hafsa bint Umar (624–632)
Zaynab bint Khuzayma (625–627)
Hind bint Abi Umayya (629–632)
Zaynab bint Jahsh (627–632)
Juwayriya bint al-Harith (628–632)
Ramlah bint Abi Sufyan (628–632)
Rayhana bint Zayd (629–631)
Safiyya bint Huyayy (629–632)
Maymuna bint al-Harith (630–632)
Maria al-Qibtiyya (630–632) |
Children |
Sons:
al-Qasim,
`Abd-Allah,
Ibrahim
Daughters:
Zainab,
Ruqayyah,
Umm Kulthoom,
Fatimah Zahra |
Parents |
Father:
`Abd Allah ibn `Abd al-Muttalib
Mother:
Aminah bint Wahb |
Relatives |
Ahl al-Bayt |
Abū al-Qāsim Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib ibn
Hāshim (Arabic:
محمد بن عبد الله بن عبد المطلب;
c. 570 –
c. 8 June 632),[1]
also
transliterated as Muhammad (Arabic:
محمد), was a religious, political, and
military leader[2][3][4]
from Mecca
who unified
Arabia into a single religious
polity
under Islam.
He is believed by
Muslims
and
Bahá'ís to be a
messenger and
prophet
of
God. Muhammad is almost universally considered by Muslims as the
last prophet sent by God for mankind.[5][n
1] While non-Muslims regard Muhammad to have been the founder
of Islam,[6]
Muslims consider him to have been the restorer of an
unaltered
original
monotheistic faith of
Adam,
Noah,
Abraham,
Moses,
Jesus, and
other prophets.[7][8][9][10]
Born in about 570 CE in the
Arabian city of
Mecca,[11][12]
Muhammad was orphaned at an early age and brought up under the care of
his uncle
Abu Talib. He later worked mostly as a merchant, as well as a
shepherd, and was first married by age 25.[13]
Being in the habit of periodically retreating to a cave in the
surrounding mountains for several nights of seclusion and prayer, he
later reported that it was there, at age 40,[11][14]
that he received
his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Muhammad
started
preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God
is One", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit.
islām) is the only way (dīn)[n
2] acceptable to God, and that he himself was a prophet and
messenger of God, in the same vein as
other Islamic prophets.[15][16][17]
Muhammad gained few
followers early on, and was met with
hostility from some Meccan tribes. To escape persecution, Muhammad
sent some of his followers to
Abyssinia before he and his followers in Mecca migrated to
Medina
(then known as Yathrib) in the year 622. This event, the
Hijra, marks the beginning of the
Islamic calendar, which is also known as the Hijri Calendar. In
Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the
Constitution of Medina. After eight years of fighting with the
Meccan tribes, his followers, who by then had grown to 10,000, took
control of Mecca in the largely peaceful
Conquest of Mecca. He destroyed the pagan idols in the city[18]
and then sent his followers out to destroy all of the remaining pagan
temples in Eastern Arabia.[19][20]
In 632, a few months after returning to Medina from
The Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and died. By the time of
his death, most of the
Arabian Peninsula had
converted to Islam, and he had united Arabia into a single
Muslim
religious polity.[21][22]
The revelations (or
Ayah,
lit. "Signs [of God]") — which Muhammad reported receiving until his
death – form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the "Word
of God" and around which the religion is based. Besides the Quran,
Muhammad's life (sira)
and traditions (sunnah)
are also upheld by Muslims as the
sources of sharia law. They discuss Muhammad and other prophets of
Islam with reverence, adding the phrase
peace be upon him whenever their names are mentioned.[23]
While conceptions of Muhammad in
medieval
Christendom and
premodern times were largely negative, appraisals in
modern history have been far less so.[17][24]
Names and appellations in the Quran
The
name Muhammad means "Praiseworthy" and occurs four times in
the Quran.[25]
The Quran addresses Muhammad in the second person not by his name but by
the
appellations
prophet,
messenger, servant of God ('abd), announcer (bashir)[Quran 2:119],
witness (shahid),[Quran 33:45]
bearer of good tidings (mubashshir), warner (nathir),[Quran 11:2]
reminder (mudhakkir),[Quran 88:21]
one who calls [unto God] (dā‘ī),[Quran 12:108]
light personified (noor)[Quran 05:15],
and the light-giving lamp (siraj munir)[Quran 73:1].
Muhammad is sometimes addressed by designations deriving from his state
at the time of the address: thus he is referred to as the enwrapped (al-muzzammil)
in Quran
73:1 and the shrouded (al-muddaththir)
in Quran
74:1.[26]
In the Quran, believers are not to distinguish between the messengers of
God and are to believe in all of them (Sura
Al-Baqara
2:285). God has caused some messengers to excel above others
2:253 and in Sura Al-Ahzab
33:40 He singles out Muhammad as the "Seal
of the Prophets".[27]
The Quran also refers to Muhammad as
Aḥmad
"more praiseworthy" (Arabic:
أحمد, Sura
As-Saff
61:6).
Sources
for Muhammad's life
Quran
A folio from an early
Quran, written in
Kufic script ( Abbasid
period, 8th–9th century).
The Quran
is the central
religious text of
Islam and
Muslims believe that it represents the words of
God revealed to Muhammad through the archangel
Gabriel.[28][29][30]
Although it mentions Muhammad directly only four times,[31]
there are verses which can be interpreted as allusions to Muhammad's
life.[17][n
3] The Quran however provides little assistance for a
chronological biography of Muhammad, and many of the utterances recorded
in it lack historical context.[32][33]
Early biographies
Next in importance are historical works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd
centuries
of
the Muslim era (AH – 8th and 9th century CE).[34]
These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad (the
sira literature), which provide further information on Muhammad's
life.[35]
The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad
and quotes attributed to him) is
Ibn
Ishaq's
Life of God's Messenger written c. 767 CE (150 AH). The work is
lost, but was used verbatim at great length by
Ibn
Hisham and
Al-Tabari.[36][37]
Another early source is
the history of Muhammad's campaigns by
al-Waqidi (death 207 of Muslim era), and
the work of his secretary
Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (death 230 of Muslim era).[34]
Many scholars accept the accuracy of the earliest biographies, though
their accuracy is unascertainable.[36]
Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between the traditions
touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. In the former
sphere, traditions could have been subject to invention while in the
latter sphere, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been
only subject to "tendential shaping".[38]
Hadith
In addition, the
hadith collections are accounts of the verbal and physical
traditions of Muhammad that date from several generations after his
death.[39]
Western academics view the hadith collections with caution as
accurate historical sources.[39]
Scholars such as
Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in
later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis
of their compatibility with the events and figures.[40]
Non-Arabic sources
The earliest documented Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from
Byzantine sources. They indicate that both
Jews and
Christians saw Muhammad as a "false
prophet". In the
Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptizati of 634, Muhammad is portrayed as
being "deceiving[,] for do prophets come with sword and
chariot?,
[...] you will discover nothing true from the said prophet except human
bloodshed."[41]
Another Greek source for Muhammad is the 9th-century writer
Theophanes. The earliest Syriac source is the 7th-century writer
John bar Penkaye.[42]
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Main tribes and settlements of Arabia in Muhammad's lifetime
The
Arabian Peninsula was largely arid and volcanic, making agriculture
difficult except near oases or springs. The landscape was thus dotted
with towns and cities, two prominent ones being
Mecca and
Medina.
Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was
an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.[43]
Communal life was essential for survival in the
desert
conditions, as people needed support against the harsh environment and
lifestyle. Tribal grouping was encouraged by the need to act as a unit,
this unity being based on the bond of kinship by blood.[44]
Indigenous Arabs were either
nomadic
or sedentary, the former constantly travelling from one place to another
seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the latter settled and
focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival was also dependent on
raiding caravans or oases, the nomads not viewing this as a crime.[45][46]
Politically Arabia at the time was divided between two tribal
confederations, the
Banu Qais,
loosely allied with
Byzantium and who were originally powerful in Northern and Western
Arabia, and the
Banu
Kalb, who had originally come from Yemen, and were loosely allied
with
Sassanid Persia. These rivalries were suppressed by Islam but
continued to influence events in the Middle East and North Africa in
post-Islamic times.
In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of
individual tribes, their spirits being associated with sacred trees,
stones,
springs and wells. As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage,
the Kaaba
shrine in Mecca housed 360 idol statues of tribal patron deities. Three
goddesses were associated with Allah as his daughters:
Allāt,
Manāt and
al-‘Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including
Christians and
Jews.[47]
Hanifs –
native pre-Islamic Arabs who "professed a rigid monotheism"[48]
– are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic
Arabia, although their
historicity is disputed amongst scholars.[49][50]
According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of
the descendants of
Ishmael,
son of
Abraham.[51]
Life
Life in Mecca
[hide]Timeline
of Muhammad in Mecca |
Important dates and
locations in the life of Muhammad |
c. 569 |
Death of his father, Abdullah |
c. 570 |
Possible date of birth:
April 19 570 dC, 12 Rabi al Awal: in
Mecca
Saudi Arabia |
576 |
Death of his mother, Aminah |
578 |
Death of his grandfather Abdul Muttalib |
c. 583 |
Takes trading journeys to
Syria |
c. 595 |
Meets and marries
Khadijah |
597 |
Birth of Zainab, his first daughter, followed by: Ruqayyah,
Umm Khultoom, and
Fatima Zahra |
610 |
Qur'anic revelation begins in the
Cave of Hira on the Jabaal an Nur the " Mountain of Light"
near Mecca |
610 |
Prophethood begins at 40 years old: Angel Jebreel (Gabriel)
appears to him on the mountain and calls him: The Prophet of
Allah |
610 |
Begins in secret to gather followers in
Mecca |
c. 613 |
Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans |
c. 614 |
Heavy persecution of muslims begins |
c. 615 |
Emigration of a group of Muslims to
Ethiopia |
616 |
Banu Hashim clan boycott begins |
619 |
The year of sorrows: Khadija (his wife) and
Abu Talib (his uncle) die |
619 |
Banu Hashim clan boycott ends |
c. 620 |
Isra and Mi'raj (the ascention to heaven to meet God) |
622 |
Emigrates to
Medina (called Yathrib): Emigration known as
Hijra |
624 |
Battle of Badr |
625 |
Battle of Uhud |
627 |
Battle of the Trench (also known as the siege of Medina) |
628 |
The Meccan tribe of Quraysh and the Muslim community in
Medina signed a 10 year truce called the
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah |
629 |
Conquest of Mecca |
632 |
Farewell pilgrimage and the death of the Prophet Muhammad
|
Muhammad was born in Mecca and lived there for roughly the first 52
years of his life (c. 570–622). This period is generally divided into
two phases, before and after declaring the
prophecy.
Childhood
and early life
Muhammad was born about the year 570[11]
and his
birthday is believed to be in the month of
Rabi' al-awwal.[52]
He belonged to the
Banu Hashim clan, one of the prominent families of
Mecca,
although it seems not to have been prosperous during Muhammad's early
lifetime.[17][53]
The Banu Hashim clan was part of the
Quraysh tribe. Tradition places the year of Muhammad's birth as
corresponding with the
Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of
Mecca that year by the
Aksumite king
Abraha
who had in his army a number of elephants. 20th-century scholarship has
suggested alternative dates for this event, such as 568 or 569.[54]
His father,
Abdullah, died almost six months before Muhammad was born.[56]
According to Islamic tradition, soon after Muhammad's birth he was sent
to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as the desert life was
considered healthier for infants. Muhammad stayed with his
foster-mother,
Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old.[13]
Some western scholars of Islam have rejected the historicity of this
tradition.[57]
At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother
Amina to illness and he became fully orphaned.[13][58]
For the next two years, he was under the guardianship of his paternal
grandfather
Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan, but when Muhammad was
eight, his grandfather also died. He then came under the care of his
uncle
Abu Talib, the new leader of Banu Hashim.[13][54]
According to Islamic historian
William Montgomery Watt, because of the general disregard of the
guardians in taking care of weak members of the tribes in Mecca in the
6th century, "Muhammad's guardians saw that he did not starve to death,
but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes
of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time."[59]
While still in his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on trading
journeys to
Syria gaining experience in commercial trade, the only career open
to Muhammad as an orphan.[13][59]
Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve
while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian
monk or hermit named
Bahira
who is said to have foreseen Muhammed's career as a prophet of God.[60]
Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth, and from the
fragmentary information that is available, it is difficult to separate
history from legend.[13][59]
It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between
the
Indian ocean and the
Mediterranean Sea."[61]
Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname "al-Amin"
(Arabic: الامين), meaning "faithful, trustworthy" and "al-Sadiq" meaning
"truthful"[62]
and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.[12][17][63]
His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from
Khadijah, a 40-year-old widow who was 15 years older than he.
Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy
one.[13][61]
Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian
Ibn
Ishaq, Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting
the
Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black
Stone, a sacred object, had been removed to facilitate renovations to
the Kaaba. The leaders of Mecca could not agree on which clan should
have the honour of setting the Black Stone back in its place. They
agreed to wait for the next man to come through the gate and ask him to
choose. That man was the 35-year-old Muhammad, five years before his
first revelation. He asked for a cloth and put the Black Stone in its
centre. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together
carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammad set the stone
in place, satisfying the honour of all.[64]
Beginnings of
the Quran
The cave
Hira in the mountain
Jabal al-Nour where, according to Muslim belief,
Muhammad received his first revelation.
Muhammad adopted the practice of praying alone for several weeks
every year in a cave on
Mount Hira
near Mecca.[65][66]
Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits to Mount Hira, the
angel
Gabriel appeared to him in the year 610 and commanded Muhammad to
recite verses which would later be included in the Quran.[67]
After returning home, Muhammad was consoled and reassured by Khadijah
and her Christian cousin,
Waraqah ibn Nawfal. Upon receiving his first revelations, he was
deeply distressed and resolved to commit suicide.[68]
He also feared that others would dismiss his claims as being possessed.[46]
Shi'a tradition maintains that Muhammad was neither surprised nor
frightened at the appearance of Gabriel but rather welcomed him as if he
had been expecting him.[69]
The initial revelation was followed by a pause of three years during
which Muhammad further gave himself to prayers and
spiritual practices. When the revelations resumed he was reassured
and commanded to begin preaching: "Thy Guardian-Lord hath not forsaken
thee, nor is He displeased."[70][71][72]
Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as
"sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell".
Aisha
reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day
and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was
over)".[73]
According to
Welch these descriptions may be considered genuine, since they are
unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.[17]
Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from
these messages.[74]
According to the Quran, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the
unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Quran
38:70, Quran
6:19). Sometimes the Quran does not explicitly refer to the Judgment
day but provides examples from the history of some extinct communities
and warns Muhammad's contemporaries of similar calamities (Quran
41:13–16).[26]
Muhammad is not only a warner to those who reject God's revelation, but
also a bearer of good news for those who abandon evil, listen to the
divine word and serve God.[75]
Muhammad's mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Quran
commands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and
instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God.[26][76]
The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the
responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of the dead,
God's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in
Hell and pleasures in Paradise; and the signs of God in all aspects of
life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few:
belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent
prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating
and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial
life of Mecca), being chaste and not to kill newborn girls.[17]
Opposition
According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first
to believe he was a prophet.[77]
She was soon followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin
Ali ibn Abi Talib,
close friend
Abu
Bakr, and adopted son
Zaid.[14][77]
Around 613, Muhammad began his public preaching (Quran
26:214).[78]
Most Meccans ignored him and mocked him,[76]
while a few others became his followers. There were three main groups of
early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants;
people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to
attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.[79]
The last
ayah from the
sura
An-Najm in the Quran: "So prostrate to Allah and worship
[Him]." Muhammad's message of
monotheism (one God) challenged the traditional order.
According to Ibn Sad, the opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad
delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the Meccan forefathers
who engaged in polytheism.[76][80]
However, the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as soon as
Muhammad started public preaching.[81]
As the number of followers increased, he became a threat to the local
tribes and the rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba,
the focal point of Meccan religious life which Muhammad threatened to
overthrow. Muhammad's denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion
was especially offensive to his own tribe, the
Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba.[79]
The powerful merchants tried to convince Muhammad to abandon his
preaching by offering him admission into the inner circle of merchants,
and establishing his position therein by an advantageous marriage.
However, he refused them both.[79]
Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment
towards Muhammad and his followers.[17][76]
Sumayyah bint Khabbab, a slave of a prominent Meccan leader
Abu Jahl, is famous as the first martyr of Islam, having been killed
with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith.
Bilal, another Muslim slave, was tortured by
Umayyah ibn Khalaf who used to place a heavy rock on his chest to
force his conversion.[82][83]
Apart from insults, Muhammad was protected from physical harm as he
belonged to the Banu Hashim clan.[76][84][85]
In 615, some of Muhammad's followers
emigrated to the
Ethiopian
Aksumite Empire and founded a small colony there under the
protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor
Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.[17][76]
Muhammad desperately hoping for an accommodation with his tribe,
either from fear or in the hope of succeeding more readily in this way,
pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses
considered to be the daughters of Allah, and appealing for their
intercession. Muhammad later retracted the verses at the behest of
Gabriel, claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself.[76][86][n
4] This episode known as "The Story of the Cranes"
(translation: قصة الغرانيق, transliteration: Qissat al Gharaneeq) is
also known as "Satanic
Verses". Some scholars argued against its historicity on various
grounds.[87]
While this incident got widespread acceptance by early Muslims, strong
objections to it were raised starting from the 10th century, on
theological grounds. The objections continued to be raised to the point
where the rejection of the historicity of the incident eventually became
the only acceptable orthodox Muslim position.[88]
In 617, the leaders of
Makhzum and
Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans, declared a public
boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it
into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted three
years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective.[89][90]
During this, Muhammad was only able to preach during the holy pilgrimage
months in which all hostilities between Arabs were suspended.[91]
Isra and Mi'raj
The
Al-Aqsa Mosque, part of the
al-Haram ash-Sharif complex in
Jerusalem, is believed to be the "farthest mosque" to
which Muhammad travelled in his night journey. The al-Haram
ash-Sharif is the third holiest place on earth for Muslims. [92]
Islamic tradition relates that in 620, Muhammad experienced the
Isra and Mi'raj, a miraculous journey said to have occurred with
the angel
Gabriel in one night. In the first part of the journey, the Isra,
he is said to have travelled from
Mecca on
a winged
steed (Buraq) to "the farthest mosque" (in Arabic: masjid
al-aqsa), which Muslims usually identify with the
Al-Aqsa Mosque in
Jerusalem. In the second part, the Mi'raj, Muhammad is said
to have toured
heaven
and
hell, and spoken with earlier prophets, such as
Abraham,
Moses, and
Jesus.[91][93]
Ibn
Ishaq, author of the first
biography of Muhammad, presents this event as a spiritual experience
whereas later historians like
Al-Tabari and
Ibn
Kathir present it as a physical journey.[93]
Some western scholars of Islam hold that the oldest Muslim tradition
identified the journey as one traveled through the heavens from the
sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-Baytu l-Maʿmur
(heavenly prototype of the Kaaba); but later tradition identified
Muhammad's journey as having been from Mecca to Jerusalem.[95]
Last
years in Mecca before Hijra
Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib both died in 619,
the year thus being known as the "year
of sorrow". With the death of Abu Talib, the leadership of the Banu
Hashim clan was passed to Abu Lahab, an inveterate enemy of Muhammad.
Soon afterwards,
Abu Lahab withdrew the clan's protection from Muhammad. This placed
Muhammad in danger of death since the withdrawal of clan protection
implied that the blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted.
Muhammad then
visited Ta'if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a
protector for himself there, but his effort failed and further brought
him into physical danger.[17][90][91]
Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut'im ibn
Adi (and the protection of the tribe of
Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him to safely re-enter his native
city.[17][90][91]
Many people were visiting Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the
Kaaba.
Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and
his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope
with some men from Yathrib (later called
Medina).[17]
The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were
prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community
existed there.[17][96]
They also hoped, by the means of Muhammad and the new faith, to gain
supremacy over Mecca, as they were jealous of its importance as the
place of pilgrimage.[96]
Converts to Islam came from nearly all
Arab tribes in Medina; and by June of the subsequent year, there
were seventy-five Muslims coming to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet
Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what was known
as the "Second
Pledge of al-`Aqaba",[96]
or in orientalists' view, the "Pledge of War"[97]
Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to
emigrate to
Yathrib. As with the
migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the
emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.[98]
Hijra
Main article:
Hijra (Islam)
The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca
to Medina in 622 CE. In September 622, warned of a plot to assassinate
him, Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca, moving with his followers
to Medina,[96]
320 kilometres (200 mi) north of Mecca. The Hijra is celebrated annually
on the first day of the Muslim year.
Migration to
Medina
A delegation consisting of the representatives of the twelve
important clans of Medina invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to
Medina to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community.[99][100]
There was fighting in Yathrib mainly involving its Arab and Jewish
inhabitants for around a hundred years before 620.[99]
The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims,
especially after the
Battle of Bu'ath in which all clans were involved, made it obvious
to them that the tribal conceptions of blood-feud and
an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man
with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.[99]
The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens
to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as
one of themselves.[17]
Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina until
virtually all his followers left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure
of Muslims, according to the tradition, the Meccans plotted to
assassinate Muhammad. With the help of
Ali, Muhammad
fooled the Meccans who were watching him, and secretly slipped away from
the town with Abu Bakr.[96][101]
By 622, Muhammad emigrated to
Medina,
a large agricultural
oasis.
Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as
muhajirun (emigrants).[17]
Establishment of a new polity
Among the first things Muhammad did to settle down the longstanding
grievances among the tribes of Medina was drafting a document known as
the
Constitution of Medina, "establishing a kind of alliance or
federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from
Mecca, which specified the rights and duties of all citizens and the
relationship of the different communities in Medina (including that of
the Muslim community to other communities, specifically the
Jews and other "Peoples
of the Book").[99][100]
The community defined in the Constitution of Medina,
Ummah,
had a religious outlook but was also shaped by practical considerations
and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.[17]
It effectively established the first Islamic state.
Several ordinances were proclaimed to win over the numerous and
wealthy Jewish population. But these were soon rescinded as the Jews
insisted on preserving the entire Mosaic law, and did not recognize him
as a prophet because he was not of the race of David.[96]
The first group of pagan converts to Islam in Medina were clans who,
lacking their own great leaders, had been subjugated by hostile leaders
from outside clans.[102]
This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the
pagan population of Medina, apart from some exceptions. According to
Ibn
Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of
Sa'd ibn Mu'adh (a prominent Medinan leader) to Islam.[103]
Those Medinans who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants
find shelter became known as the
ansar (supporters).[17]
Then Muhammad instituted
brotherhood between the emigrants and the supporters and he chose
Ali as his
own brother.[104]
God!
There is no god but He,
the Living, the Everlasting.
Slumber seizes Him not, neither sleep;
to Him belongs all that is in the heavens and the earth.
Who is there that shall intercede with Him save by His
leave?
He knows what lies before them and what is after them,
and they comprehend not anything of His knowledge
save such as He wills.
His Throne comprises the heavens and earth;
the preserving of them oppresses Him not;
He is the All-high, the All-glorious.
Beginning
of armed conflict
Following the emigration, the Meccans seized the properties of the
Muslim emigrants in Mecca.[106]
Economically uprooted and with no available profession, the Muslim
migrants turned to raiding Meccan caravans, initiating armed conflict
with Mecca.[107][108][109]
Muhammad delivered
Quranic
verses permitting the Muslims to fight the Meccans (see sura
Al-Hajj,
Quran
22:39–40).[110]
These attacks allowed the migrants to acquire wealth, power and prestige
while working towards their ultimate goal of conquering Mecca.[111][112]
On 11 February 624 according to the traditional account, while
praying in the
Masjid al-Qiblatain in Medina, Muhammad received a revelation from
God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer.
As he adjusted himself, so did his companions praying with him,
beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.[113]
According to Watt, the change may have been less sudden and definite
than the story suggests – the related Quranic verses (2:136–2:147)
appear to have been revealed at different times – and correlates with
changes in Muhammad's political support base, symbolizing his turning
away from Jews and adopting a more Arabian outlook.[113]
In March 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a
Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for them at Badr.[114]
Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims.[109]
Meanwhile, a force from Mecca was sent to protect the caravan,
continuing forward to confront the Muslims upon hearing that the caravan
was safe. The
Battle of Badr began in March 624.[115]
Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle,
killing at least forty-five Meccans with only fourteen Muslims dead.
They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including
Abu Jahl.[116]
Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were soon ransomed in
return for wealth or freed.[107][109][117][118]
Muhammad and his followers saw in the victory a confirmation of their
faith[17]
as Muhammad ascribed the victory to the assistance of an invisible host
of angels.[119]
The Quranic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan ones, dealt with
practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of
spoils.[120][121]
The victory strengthened Muhammad's position in Medina and dispelled
earlier doubts among his followers.[122]
As a result the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not
yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans,
Asma bint Marwan and
Abu
'Afak, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims. They
were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and no
blood-feud followed.[123]
Muhammad expelled from Medina the
Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes.[17]
Although Muhammad wanted them executed,
Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy chief of the
Khazraj tribe did not agree and they were expelled to Syria but
without their property.[121]
Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances
with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks
from the northern part of
Hijaz.[17]
Conflict with
Mecca
The
Kaaba in
Mecca long held a major economic and religious role for
the area. Seventeen months after Muhammad's arrival in
Medina, it became the Muslim
Qibla, or direction for prayer ( salat).
The Kaaba has been rebuilt several times; the present
structure, built in 1629, is a reconstruction of an earlier
building dating to 683. [124]
Main article:
Battle of Uhud
The Meccans were now anxious to avenge their defeat. To maintain
their economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige,
which had been lost at Badr.[125]
In the ensuing months, the Meccans sent ambush parties on Medina while
Muhammad led expeditions on tribes allied with Mecca and sent out a raid
on a Meccan caravan.[126]
Abu Sufyan subsequently gathered an army of three thousand men and
set out for an attack on Medina.[121][127]
A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a
day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, there was
dispute over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many senior
figures suggested that it would be safer to fight within Medina and take
advantage of its heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued
that the Meccans were destroying their crops, and that huddling in the
strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded
to the wishes of the latter, and readied the Muslim force for battle.[121]
Thus, Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (where the
Meccans had camped) and fought the
Battle of Uhud on 23 March.[128][129]
Although the Muslim army had the best of the early encounters,
indiscipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim
defeat, with 75 Muslims killed including
Hamza, Muhammad's uncle and one of the best known
martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the
Muslims further, but marched back to Mecca declaring victory. This is
probably because Muhammad was wounded and thought to be dead. When they
knew this on their way back, they did not return because of false
information about new forces coming to his aid.[121]
They were not entirely successful, however, as they had failed to
achieve their aim of completely destroying the Muslims.[130][131]
The Muslims buried the dead, and returned to Medina that evening.
Questions accumulated as to the reasons for the loss, and Muhammad
subsequently delivered Quranic verses
3:152 which indicated that their defeat was partly a punishment for
disobedience and partly a test for steadfastness.[132]
Abu Sufyan now directed his efforts towards another attack on Medina.
He attracted the support of nomadic tribes to the north and east of
Medina, using propaganda about Muhammad's weakness, promises of booty,
memories of the prestige of the Quraysh and use of bribes.[133]
Muhammad's policy was now to prevent alliances against him as much as he
could. Whenever alliances of tribesmen against Medina were formed, he
sent out an expedition to break them up.[133]
When Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against
Medina, he reacted with severity.[134]
One example is the assassination of
Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of
Banu Nadir who had gone to Mecca and written poems that helped rouse
the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of
Badr.[135][136]
Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Banu Nadir from Medina[137]
to Syria allowing them to take some of their possessions because he was
unable to subdue them in their strongholds. The rest of their property
was claimed by Muhammad in the name of God because it was not gained
with bloodshed. Muhammad surprised various Arab tribes, one by one, with
overwhelming force which caused his enemies to unite to annihilate him.[138]
Muhammad's attempts to prevent formation of a confederation against him
were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and
stop many potential tribes from joining his enemies.[139]
Siege of Medina
Allah is the Light
of the heavens and the earth.
The Parable of His Light is
as if there were a Niche
and within it a Lamp:
the Lamp enclosed in Glass:
the glass as it were a brilliant star:
Lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive,
neither of the east nor of the west,
whose oil is well-nigh luminous,
though fire scarce touched it:
Light upon Light!
Allah doth guide whom He will to His Light:
Allah doth set forth Parables for men:
and Allah doth know all things.
—The famous "Light Verse", part of the sura
An-Nur,
24:35
With the help of the exiled
Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader
Abu Sufyan had mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a
force of about 3,000 men and adopted a new form of defense unknown in
Arabia at that time: the Muslims dug a trench[138]
wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a
Persian convert to Islam,
Salman the Persian. The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627[138]
and lasted for two weeks.[140]
Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications they were
confronted with, and after an ineffectual siege lasting several weeks,
the coalition decided to go home.[138][141]
The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses
33:9–27.[81]
During the battle, the Jewish tribe of
Banu Qurayza, located at the south of Medina, had entered into
negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although
they were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be
overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable
to destroy him. No agreement was reached after the prolonged
negotiations, in part due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's scouts.[142]
After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of
treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza
eventually surrendered; according to
Ibn
Ishaq, all the men apart from a few who converted to Islam were
beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved.[138][143][144]
Walid N. Arafat and
Barakat Ahmad have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq"s narrative,
however.[145]
Arafat believes that Ibn Ishaq's Jewish sources, speaking over 100 years
after the event, conflated their account with memories of earlier
massacres in Jewish history; he notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an
unreliable historian by his contemporary
Malik ibn Anas, and a transmitter of "odd tales" by the later
Ibn Hajar.[146]
Ahmad argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of the
fighters were merely enslaved.[147][148]
Watt finds Arafat's arguments "not entirely convincing", while Meir J.
Kister has contradicted[clarification
needed] the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.[149]
In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted their utmost strength
towards the destruction of the Muslim community. Their failure resulted
in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria was gone.[150]
Following the Battle of the Trench, he made two expeditions to the north
which ended without any fighting.[17][138]
While returning from one of these (or some years earlier according to
other early accounts), an
accusation of adultery was made against
Aisha,
Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from the accusations when Muhammad
announced that he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence
and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses
(sura 24,
An-Nur).[151]
Truce of
Hudaybiyyah
Although Muhammad had already delivered Quranic verses commanding the
Hajj,[152]
the Muslims had not performed it due to the enmity of the Quraysh. In
the month of
Shawwal
628,[138]
Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to make
preparations for a pilgrimage (umrah)
to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal
in a vision where he was shaving his head after the completion of the
Hajj.[153]
Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh sent out a
force of 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more
difficult route, thereby reaching al-Hudaybiyya, just outside of Mecca.[154]
According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make the pilgrimage
was based on his dream, he was at the same time demonstrating to the
pagan Meccans that Islam does not threaten the prestige of their
sanctuary, and that Islam was an Arabian religion.[154]
Negotiations commenced with emissaries going to and from Mecca. While
these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators,
Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad
responded by calling upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or
to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation
descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge
of Acceptance" (Arabic:
بيعة الرضوان , bay'at al-ridhwān) or the "Pledge
under the Tree". News of Uthman's safety, however, allowed for
negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was
eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.[154][155]
The main points of the treaty included the cessation of hostilities; the
deferral of Muhammad's pilgrimage to the following year;[156]
and an agreement to send back any Meccan who had gone to Medina without
the permission of their protector.[154]
Many Muslims were not satisfied with the terms of the treaty.
However, the Quranic sura "Al-Fath"
(The Victory) (Quran
48:1–29) assured the Muslims that the expedition from which they
were now returning must be considered a victorious one.[157]
It was only later that Muhammad's followers would realise the benefit
behind this treaty. These benefits included the inducing of the Meccans
to recognise Muhammad as an equal;[156]
a cessation of military activity posing well for the future; and gaining
the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the incorporation of the
pilgrimage rituals.[17]
After signing the truce, Muhammad made an expedition against the
Jewish oasis of
Khaybar,[156]
known as the
Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to its housing of the Banu
Nadir who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain some
prestige to deflect from what appeared to some Muslims as the
inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya.[127][158]
According to Muslim tradition,
Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers of the world, asking them
to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources).[17][159][160][161]
Hence he sent messengers (with letters) to
Heraclius of the
Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire),
Khosrau of
Persia, the chief of
Yemen and
to some others.[159][160][161]
In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad sent his forces
against the Arabs on
Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the
Battle of Mu'tah, in which the Muslims were defeated.[161][162]
Final years
Conquest of Mecca
A depiction of Muhammad (with veiled face) advancing on
Mecca from
Siyer-i Nebi, a 16th-century
Ottoman manuscript. The angels Gabriel, Michael,
Israfil and Azrail, are also shown.
The
truce of Hudaybiyyah had been enforced for two years.[163][164]
The tribe of
Banu Khuza'a had good relations with Muhammad, whereas their
enemies, the
Banu Bakr, had an alliance with the Meccans.[163][164]
A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuza'a, killing a few
of them.[163][164]
The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some
sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.[161][163]
After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three
conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were: either the
Meccans would pay
blood money for those slain among the Khuza'ah tribe; or, they
should disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr; or, that they should declare
the truce of Hudaybiyyah null.[165]
The Meccans replied that they would accept only the last condition.[165]
However, soon they realized their mistake and sent
Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, but now his request was
declined by Muhammad.[161]
Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.[166]
In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number
more than ten thousand men. With minimal casualties, Muhammad took
control of Mecca.[167][168]
He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women
who were "guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off the war
and disrupted the peace".[169]
Some of these were later pardoned.[168][170]
Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad subsequently destroyed all
the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba.[168][171][172]
According to reports collected by
Ibn
Ishaq and
al-Azraqi, Muhammad personally spared paintings or frescos of
Mary and Jesus, but other traditions suggest that all pictures were
erased.[173]
The Quran discusses the conquest of Mecca.[81][174]
Conquest of Arabia
Soon after the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military
threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were collecting an
army twice the size of Muhammad's. The
Banu
Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the
Banu Thaqif (inhabiting the city of Ta'if) who adopted an
anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans.[175]
Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the
Battle of Hunayn.[17][176]
In the same year, Muhammad made the expedition of Tabuk against
northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the
Battle of Mu'tah as well as reports of the hostile attitude adopted
against Muslims. With the greatest difficulty he collected thirty
thousand men, half of whom, however, on the second day after their
departure from Mecca, returned with
Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, untroubled by the damning verses which Muhammad
hurled at them.[177]
Although Muhammad did not make contact with hostile forces at Tabuk, he
received the submission of some local chiefs of the region.[17][178]
He also ordered the destruction of remaining pagan idols in Eastern
Arabia. The last city to hold out against the Muslims in Eastern Arabia
was
Taif. Muhammad refused to accept the surrender of the city until
they agreed to convert to Islam and let his men destroy their statue of
their goddess
Allat.[179][180][181]
A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to
Medina
to surrender to Muhammad and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to
Muhammad to be safe against his attacks and to benefit from the booties
of the wars.[17][177]
However, the bedouins were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to
maintain their independence, their established code of virtue and their
ancestral traditions. Muhammad thus required of them a military and
political agreement according to which they "acknowledge the suzerainty
of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and
to pay the
Zakat, the Muslim religious levy."[177][182]
Farewell
pilgrimage
In 632, at the end of the tenth year after the migration to Medina,
Muhammad carried through his first truly
Islamic
pilgrimage, thereby teaching his followers the rites of the annual
Great Pilgrimage, known as Hajj.[17]
After completing the pilgrimage, Muhammad delivered a famous speech,
known as
The Farewell Sermon, at
Mount Arafat east of Mecca. In this sermon, Muhammad advised his
followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs. He declared that an
Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, nor a non-Arab has any
superiority over an Arab. Also a white has no superiority over black,
nor a black has any superiority over white except by piety and good
action.[183]
He abolished all old
blood feuds and disputes based on the former
tribal system and asked for all old pledges to be returned as
implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on
the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammad asked his male
followers to "be good to women, for they are powerless captives (awan)
in your households. You took them in God's trust, and
legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to
your senses people, and hear my words ..." He told them that they were
entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. He
addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of
paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased, and forbade his
followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld
the sacredness of four lunar months in each year.[184][185][186]
According to
Sunni
tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event:
"Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you
and chosen Islam as a religion for you" (Quran
5:3).[17][187]
According to
Shia tafsir, it refers to the appointment of
Ali ibn Abi Talib
at the
pond of Khumm as
Muhammad's successor, this occurring a few days later when Muslims
were returning from Mecca to Medina.[188]
Death and tomb
A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and
suffered for several days with fever, head pain, and weakness.[187]
He died on Monday, 8 June 632, in Medina, at the age of 62 or 63, in the
house of his wife Aisha.[189]
With his head resting on Aisha's lap, he asked her to dispose of his
last worldly goods (seven coins), then murmured his final words:
Rather, God on High and paradise. [189]
—Muhammad
He was buried where he died, in Aisha's house.[17][190][191][192]
During the reign of the Umayyad caliph
al-Walid I, the
Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded to
include the site of
Muhammad's tomb.[193]
The
Green Dome above the tomb was built by the
Mamluk sultan
Al Mansur Qalawun in the 13th century, although the green color was
added in the 16th century, under the reign of
Ottoman sultan
Suleiman the Magnificent.[194]
Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those of his companions (Sahabah),
the first two Muslim caliphs
Abu
Bakr and
Umar, and an empty one that
Muslims believe awaits Jesus.[191][195][196]
When
bin Saud took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its
gold and jewel ornaments.[197]
Adherents to
Wahhabism, bin Sauds' followers destroyed nearly every tomb dome in
Medina in order to prevent their veneration,[197]
and the one of Muhammad is said to have narrowly escaped.[198]
Similar events took place in 1925 when the
Saudi
militias retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.[199][200][201]
In the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in
unmarked graves.[198]
Although frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice
a ziyarat—a
ritual visit—to the tomb.[202][203]
Although banned by the Saudi, the first ever photos from inside of the
tomb of Muhammad and his daughter's (Fatemeh) house were published on
Oct 2012 demonstrating it was constructed in a very simple way,
decorated in green.[204]
Post Muhammad
Conquests of Muhammad and the Rashidun.
Muhammad united the
tribes of Arabia into a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the
last years of his life. With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out
over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community.[22]
Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated
Abu
Bakr, Muhammad's friend and collaborator. Others added their support
and Abu Bakr was made the first
caliph.[192]
This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that
Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the
successor by Muhammad at
Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to make an expedition
against the
Byzantine (or
Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat,
although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an
episode referred to by later Muslim historians as the
Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[205]
The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the
Byzantine and
Sassanian empires. The
Roman-Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region, making
the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands
that would be conquered by Muslims many Christians (Nestorians,
Monophysites,
Jacobites and
Copts) were disaffected from the
Christian Orthodoxy which deemed them heretics. Within only a
decade, Muslims conquered
Mesopotamia,
Persia,
Byzantine Syria, and
Byzantine Egypt,[206]
and established the
Rashidun Caliphate.
Early
reforms under Islam
According to
William Montgomery Watt, for Muhammad, religion was not a private
and individual matter but rather “the total response of his personality
to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not
only]… to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but
also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which
contemporary Mecca was subject."[207]
Bernard Lewis says that there are two important political traditions
in Islam – one that views Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and another
that views him as a rebel in Mecca. He sees Islam itself as a type of
revolution that greatly changed the societies into which the new
religion was brought.[208]
Historians generally agree that Islamic social reforms in areas such
as
social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women
and children improved on the status quo of Arab society.[208][209]
For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced
aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of
the career open to the talents".[208]
Muhammad's message transformed the society and
moral order of life in the Arabian Peninsula through reorientation
of society as regards to identity,
world view, and the hierarchy of values.[210]
Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an
issue in
pre-Islamic Mecca.[211]
The Quran requires payment of an alms tax (zakat)
for the benefit of the poor, and as Muhammad's position grew in power he
demanded that those tribes who wanted to ally with him implement the
zakat in particular.[212][213]
Appearance
Ali gave the following description of Muhammad's physical appearance:[214]
Muhammad was middle-sized, did not have lank or crisp hair, was
not fat, had a white circular face, wide black eyes, and long
eye-lashes. When he walked, he walked as though he went down a
declivity. He had the "seal of prophecy" between his shoulder
blades ... He was bulky. His face shone like the moon. He was taller
than middling stature but shorter than conspicuous tallness. He had
thick, curly hair. The plaits of his hair were parted. His hair
reached beyond the lobe of his ear. His complexion was azhar
[bright, luminous]. Muhammad had a wide forehead, and fine, long,
arched eyebrows which did not meet. Between his eyebrows there was a
vein which distended when he was angry. The upper part of his nose
was hooked; he was thick bearded, had smooth cheeks, a strong mouth,
and his teeth were set apart. He had thin hair on his chest. His
neck was like the neck of an ivory statue, with the purity of
silver. Muhammad was proportionate, stout, firm-gripped, even of
belly and chest, broad-chested and broad-shouldered.
The "seal of prophecy" between the Prophet's shoulders is generally
described as having been a type of raised mole the size of a pigeon's
egg.[215]
Another description of Muhammad was provided by Umm Ma'bad, a woman he
met on his journey to Medina:[216]
I saw a man, pure and clean, with a handsome face and a fine
figure. He was not marred by a skinny body, nor was he overly small
in the head and neck. He was graceful and elegant, with intensely
black eyes and thick eyelashes. There was a huskiness in his voice,
and his neck was long. His beard was thick, and his eyebrows were
finely arched and joined together.
When silent, he was grave and dignified, and when he spoke, glory
rose up and overcame him. He was from afar the most beautiful of men
and the most glorious, and close up he was the sweetest and the
loveliest. He was sweet of speech and articulate, but not petty or
trifling. His speech was a string of cascading pearls, measured so
that none despaired of its length, and no eye challenged him because
of brevity.
Descriptions like these were often reproduced in calligraphic panels
(hilya
or, in Turkish, hilye), which in the 17th century developed into
an art form of their own in the
Ottoman Empire.[216]
Household
Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods:
pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and
post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have
had thirteen wives or concubines. (There are differing accounts on the
status of some of them as wife or concubine.[217][218])
All but two of his marriages were contracted after the
migration to Medina.
At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy
Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years old at that time.[219]
The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.[220]
Muhammad relied upon Khadija in many ways and did not enter into
marriage with another woman during this marriage.[221][222]
After the death of Khadija, it was suggested to Muhammad by Khawla bint
Hakim that he should marry
Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or
Aisha,
daughter of
Um Ruman and
Abu
Bakr of
Mecca. Muhammad is said to have asked her to arrange for him to
marry both.[151]
Traditional sources dictate that Aisha was six or seven years old
when betrothed to Muhammad,[151][223][224]
with the marriage not being
consummated until after she had reached puberty at the age of nine
or ten years old.[151][223][225][226][227][228][229]
While the majority of traditional sources indicate Aisha was 9 (and
therefore a virgin) at the time of marriage, a small number of more
recent
Shia writers have variously estimated her age at 12 to 24.[230][231][232]
After migration to Medina, Muhammad (who was now in his fifties)
married several women. These marriages were contracted mostly for
political or humanitarian reasons. The women were either widows of
Muslims who had been killed in battle and had been left without a
protector, or belonging to important families or clans whom it was
necessary to honor and strengthen alliances with.[233]
Muhammad did his own household chores and helped with housework, such
as preparing food, sewing clothes and repairing shoes. He is also said
to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their
advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.[234][235][236]
Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad – (Ruqayyah
bint Muhammad,
Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad,
Zainab bint Muhammad,
Fatimah
Zahra) – and two sons – (Abd-Allah
ibn Muhammad and
Qasim ibn Muhammad) – who both died in childhood. All except one of
his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.[237]
Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter.[238]
Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named
Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, but the child died when he was two years old.[237]
Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him.[218]
Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favourite wife in Sunni tradition,
survived him by many decades and was instrumental in helping bring
together the scattered sayings of Muhammad that would form the Hadith
literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.[151]
Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as
sharifs,
syeds or
sayyids.
These are honorific titles in
Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid
meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are
respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more
emphasis and value on their distinction.[239]
Zayd ibn Harith was a slave whom Muhammad bought, freed, and then
adopted as his son. He also had a
wetnurse.[240]
Muhammad owned other slaves as well, whom he bought usually to free.[241]
Legacy
Muslim views
Following the attestation to the
oneness of
God, the belief in Muhammad's prophethood is the main aspect of the
Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in the
Shahadah that "I testify that there is none worthy of worship
except God, and I testify that Muhammad is a Messenger of God". The
Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of
Islam.
Ideally, it is the first word a newborn will hear, and children are
taught as soon as they are able to understand it and it will be recited
when they die. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (adhan)
and the
prayer itself. Non-Muslims wishing to
convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[242]
In Islamic belief, Muhammad is regarded as the last of a series of
Prophets sent by God[7][243][244][245][246]
for the benefit of mankind.
Quran 10:37
states that "...it (the Quran) is a confirmation of (revelations) that
went before it, and a fuller explanation of the Book – wherein there
is no doubt – from
The Lord of the Worlds.". Similarly
Quran 46:12
states "...And before this was the book of Moses, as a guide and a
mercy. And this Book confirms (it)...", while
2:136 commands the believers of Islam to "Say: we believe in God and
that which is revealed unto us, and that which was revealed unto
Abraham
and
Ishmael and
Isaac and
Jacob and
the tribes, and that which
Moses and
Jesus received, and which the prophets received from their Lord. We make
no distinction between any of them, and unto Him we have surrendered."
Historian Denis Gril believes that the Quran does not overtly
describe Muhammad performing
miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad is finally
identified with the Quran itself.[247]
However, Muslim tradition credits
Muhammad with several miracles or supernatural events.[248]
For example, many Muslim commentators and some Western scholars have
interpreted the Surah
54:1–2 as referring to Muhammad
splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh when they began
persecuting his followers.[247][249]
The
Sunnah represents the actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in
reports known as
Hadith),
and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from
religious rituals, personal hygiene, burial of the dead to the mystical
questions involving the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is
considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great
degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad taught
Muslims to offer each other, "may peace be upon you" (Arabic:
as-salamu `alaykum) is used by Muslims throughout the world.
Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting
and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the
Quran.[250]
The Sunnah also played a major role in the development of the Islamic
sciences. It contributed much to the development of Islamic law,
particularly from the end of the first Islamic century.[251]
Muslim mystics, known as
sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Quran and the
inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a
prophet but also as a perfect saint. Sufi orders trace their chain of
spiritual descent back to Muhammad.[252]
Calligraphic rendering of "peace be upon him", customarily
added after Muhammad's name in writing. The phrase is
encoded as a
ligature at
Unicode codepoint
U+FDFA. [253]
ﷺ.
Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for
Muhammad. Stories of Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his
miracles (particularly "Splitting
of the moon") have permeated popular Muslim thought and
poetry.
Among Arabic odes to Muhammad, the
Qaṣīda al-Burda ("Poem of the Mantle") by the Egyptian
Sufi
al-Busiri (1211–1294) is particularly well known, and widely held to
possess a healing, spiritual power.[254]
The Quran refers to Muhammad as "a mercy (rahmat) to the worlds"
(Quran
21:107).[17]
The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to
imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching
over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly
dead earth (see, for example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif).[17]
Muhammad's
birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the
Islamic world, excluding
Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are
discouraged.[255]
When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it
with
Peace be upon him (Arabic: sallAllahu `alayhi wa sallam).[23]
In casual writing, this is sometimes abbreviated as PBUH or SAW; in
printed matter, a small calligraphic rendition is commonly used instead
of printing the entire phrase.
Islamic depictions of Muhammad
Muhammad's entry into Mecca and the destruction of idols.
Muhammad is shown as a flame in this manuscript. Found in
Bazil's Hamla-i Haydari,
Kashmir, 1808.
In line with the
hadith prohibition against creating images of sentient living beings,
which is particularly strictly observed with respect to God and
Muhammad, Islamic religious art is focused on the word.[256][257]
Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and mosques are
decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical
designs, not images or sculptures.[256][258]
Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad – designed to prevent
worship of Muhammad, rather than God – is much more strictly observed in
Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) than among Shias (10%–15%).[259]
While both Sunnis and Shiites have created images of Muhammad in the
past,[260]
Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare.[256]
They have, until recently[when?],
mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature,
and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled,
or symbolically represent him as a flame.[258][261]
The earliest extant depictions come from 13th-century
Anatolian Seljuk and
Ilkhanid
Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life
and deeds of Muhammad.[261][262]
During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to
Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including
images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of
Islam's key events.[263]
Influenced by the
Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the
Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the
Islamic world, and accompanied by a "broader shift in Islamic artistic
culture away from abstraction toward representation" in "mosques, on
tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in glass and metalwork" besides books.[264]
In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions lasted
through the
Timurid dynasty until the
Safavids took power in the early 16th century.[263]
The Safavaids, who made Shi'i Islam the state religion, initiated a
departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by
covering Muhammad's face with a veil to obscure his features and at the
same time represent his luminous essence.[265]
Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were
defaced.[263][266][267]
Later images were produced in
Ottoman Turkey and elsewhere, but mosques were never decorated with
images of Muhammad.[260]
Illustrated accounts of the night journey (mi'raj) were
particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era.[268]
During the 19th century,
Iran saw a
boom of printed and illustrated mi'raj books, with Muhammad's
face veiled, aimed in particular at illiterates and children in the
manner of
graphic novels. Reproduced through
lithography, these were essentially "printed manuscripts".[268]
Today, millions of historical reproductions and modern images are
available in some Muslim countries, especially Turkey and Iran, on
posters, postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but are unknown in
most other parts of the Islamic world, and when encountered by Muslims
from other countries, they can cause considerable consternation and
offense.[260][261]
Non-Muslim views
Non-Muslim views regarding Muhammad have ranged across a large
spectrum of responses and beliefs, many of which have changed over time.[269][270]
Historical
Western views
According to
Hossein Nasr, earliest European literature often refers to Muhammad
unfavorably. A few learned circles of
Middle Ages Europe – primarily Latin-literate scholars – had access
to fairly extensive biographical material about Muhammad. They
interpreted that information through a Christian religious filter that
viewed Muhammad as a charlatan driven by ambition and eagerness for
power, and who seduced the Saracens into his submission under a
religious guise.[17]
Popular European literature of the time portrayed Muhammad as though he
were worshipped by Muslims in the manner of an idol or a heathen god.[17]
Some medieval Christians believed he died in 666, alluding to
the number of the beast, instead of his actual death date in 632;[271]
others changed his name from Muhammad to
Mahound,
the "devil incarnate".[272]
Bernard Lewis writes "The development of the concept of Mahound
started with considering Muhammad as a kind of demon or false god
worshipped with
Apollyon and
Termagant in an unholy trinity."[273]
A later medieval work, Livre dou Tresor represents Muhammad as a
former monk and cardinal.[17]
Dante's
Divine Comedy (Canto
XXVIII), puts Muhammad, together with Ali, in
Hell "among
the sowers of discord and the schismatics, being lacerated by devils
again and again."[17]
Cultural critic and author
Edward Said wrote in
Orientalism regarding Dante's depiction of Muhammad:
Empirical data about the Orient...count for very little; ... What
... Dante tried to do in the
Inferno, is ... to characterize the Orient as alien and to
incorporate it schematically on a theatrical stage whose audience,
manager, and actors are ... only for Europe. Hence the vacillation
between the familiar and the alien; Mohammed is always the imposter
(familiar, because he pretends to be like the Jesus we know) and
always the Oriental (alien, because although he is in some ways
"like" Jesus, he is after all not like him).[274]
After the
Reformation, Muhammad was often portrayed as a cunning and ambitious
impostor.[17][273]
Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view
of Muhammad.[17]
Boulainvilliers described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a
just lawmaker.[17]
Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad because "he did not deviate from
the natural religion".[17]
Thomas Carlyle in his book
Heroes and Hero Worship and the Heroic in History (1840)
describes Muhammed as "[a] silent great soul; [...] one of those who
cannot but be in earnest".[275]
Edward Gibbon in his book
The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire observes
that "the good sense of Mohammad despised the pomp of royalty."
Friedrich Martin von Bodenstedt (1851) described Muhammad as "an
ominous destroyer and a prophet of murder."[17]
Simon Ockley wrote in his book
The History of the Saracen Empires (1718):
The greatest success of Mohammad's life was effected by sheer
moral force...It is not the propagation but the permanency of his
religion that deserves our wonder, the same pure and perfect
impression which he engraved at Mecca and Medina is preserved, after
the revolutions of twelve centuries by the Indian, the African and
the Turkish proselytes of the Koran. . . The Mahometans have
uniformly withstood the temptation of reducing the object of their
faith and devotion to a level with the senses and imagination of
man. 'I believe in One God and Mahomet the Apostle of God' is the
simple and invariable profession of Islam. The intellectual image of
the Deity has never been degraded by any visible idol; the honours
of the prophet have never transgressed the measure of human virtue,
and his living precepts have restrained the gratitude of his
disciples within the bounds of reason and religion.[276]
A 19th-century depiction titled "Muhammad preaching"
(1840–1850) by Russian artist
Grigory Gagarin
Reverend Benjamin Bosworth Smith in his book Muhammad and
Muhammadanism (1874) commented:
...if ever any man had the right to say that he ruled by the
right divine, it was Mohammed, for he had all the power without its
instruments and without its supports. He cared not for the dressings
of power. The simplicity of his private life was in keeping with his
public life...In Mohammadanism every thing is different here.
Instead of the shadowy and the mysterious, we have history....We
know of the external history of Muhammad....while for his internal
history after his mission had been proclaimed, we have a book
absolutely unique in its origin, in its preservation....on the
Substantial authority of which no one has ever been able to cast a
serious doubt.[277]
Alphonse de Lamartine's Histoire de la Turquie (1854) says
about Muhammad:
If greatness of purpose, smallness of means and outstanding
results are the three criteria of human genius, who could dare
compare any great man in modern history with Muhammad.[278]
Never has a man proposed for himself, voluntarily or
involuntarily, a goal more sublime, since this goal was beyond
measure: undermine the superstitions placed between the creature and
the Creator, give back God to man and man to God, reinstate the
rational and saintly idea of
divinity in the midst of this prevailing chaos of material and
disfigured gods of idolatry.... The most famous have only moved
weapons, laws, empires; they founded, when they founded anything,
only material powers, often crumbling before them. This one not only
moved armies, legislations, empires, peoples, dynasties, millions of
men over a third of the inhabited globe; but he also moved ideas,
beliefs, souls. He founded upon a book, of which each letter has
become a law, a spiritual nationality embracing people of all
languages and races; and made an indelible imprint upon this
Muslim world, for the hatred of false gods and the passion for
the God, One and Immaterial. ... Philosopher, orator, apostle,
legislator, warrior, conqueror of ideas, restorer of a rational
dogma for a cult without imagery, founder of twenty earthly empires
and of a spiritual empire, this is Muhammad.[278]
Annie Besant in The Life and Teachings of Muhammad (1932)
wrote:
It is impossible for anyone who studies the life and character of
the great Prophet of Arabia, who knows how he taught and how he
lived, to feel anything but reverence for that mighty Prophet, one
of the great messengers of the Supreme...[279]
According to
William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell, recent writers have
generally dismissed the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his
followers, arguing that Muhammad "was absolutely sincere and acted in
complete good faith"[280]
and that Muhammad's readiness to endure hardship for his cause when
there seemed to be no rational basis for hope shows his sincerity.[281]
Watt says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: In
contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his own subconscious
for divine revelation.[282]
Watt and
Bernard Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor
makes it impossible to understand the development of Islam.[283][284]
Alford T. Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential
and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.[17]
Michael H. Hart in his first book
The 100:
A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History (1978), a
ranking of the 100 people who most influenced
human history,[285]
chose Muhammad as the first person on his list,[286]
attributing this to the fact that Muhammad was "supremely successful" in
both the religious and secular realms. He also credits the authorship of
the Quran
to Muhammad, making his role in the development of Islam an unparalleled
combination of secular and religious influence which entitles Muhammad
to be considered the most influential single figure in human history.
Other religious
views
-
Bahá'ís venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "Manifestations
of God", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by
those of
Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahai faith.[287]
-
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints neither regards
Muhammad as a prophet nor accepts the Quran as a book of scripture.
However, it does respect Muhammad as one who taught moral truths
which can enlighten nations and bring a higher level of
understanding to individuals.[288]
Criticism
Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century. He has been
attacked by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching
monotheism, as well as for
his multiple marriages, possession of slaves and
military expeditions across the Middle East.
See also
Notes
-
Jump up ^
Not all Muslims believe Muhammad
was the last prophet. For example, the
Ahmadiyya Muslim Community considers
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad to be a prophet as well. The
Nation of Islam considers
Elijah Muhammad to be a prophet (source: African American
Religious Leaders – Page 76, Jim Haskins, Kathleen Benson –
2008). United Submitters International consider Rashad Khalifa
to be a prophet. (source: Miniatures: Views of Islamic and
Middle Eastern Politics – Page 98, Daniel Pipes – 2004) ("Finality
of Prophethood | Hadhrat Muhammad (PUBH) the Last Prophet".
Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.)
-
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'Islam' is always referred to in
the Quran as a dīn, a word that means "way" or "path" in
Arabic, but is usually translated in English as "religion" for
the sake of convenience
-
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S. A. Nigosian(2004), p. 6 The
Encyclopaedia of Islam says that the Quran responds
"constantly and often candidly to Muhammad's changing historical
circumstances and contains a wealth of hidden data."
-
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The aforementioned Islamic
histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm
(Q.53), as revealed to him by the
Archangel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following
lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and
al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted
Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and
Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn
Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166.
References
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Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63
gives 8 June 632, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier,
mainly non-Islamic traditions refer to him as still alive at the
time of the invasion of Palestine. See Stephen J. Shoemaker,The
Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad's Life and the
Beginnings of
Islam,
University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.
-
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The Leadership of Muhammad at
Google Books by John Adair
-
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Lamptey, Jerusha (5 October 2012).
"From Its Earliest Days, Islam Respects Plurality".
The New York Times.
Retrieved 6 November 2012.
-
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Bill
Warner (August 2010).
"Mohammed". Political Islam.
Retrieved 6 November 2012.
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Quran 33:40
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Morgan,
Diane (2009).
Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice.
p. 101.
ISBN 978-0313360251.
Retrieved 4 July 2012.
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Jump up to:
a
b
Esposito (1998), p. 12.
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Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
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Peters,
F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians.
Princeton University Press. p. 9.
ISBN 0-691-11553-2.
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Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.).
Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 12.
ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
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Jump up to:
a
b
c
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a
b
Encyclopedia of World History
(1998), p. 452
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a
b
c
d
e
f
g
An Introduction to the Quran
(1895), p. 182
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^
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a
b
An Introduction to the Quran
(1895), p. 184
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F. E. Peters (2003), p. 9.
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Esposito (1998), p. 12; (1999) p.
25; (2002) pp. 4–5
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b
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d
e
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aa
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al
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an
ao
Buhl, F.; Welch, A. T.
(1993). "Muḥammad".
Encyclopaedia of Islam 7 (2nd ed.). Brill
Academic Publishers. pp. 360–376.
ISBN 90-04-09419-9.
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Sahih-Bukhari, Book 43, #658
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Sahih Bukhari Book 59, #641
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Hisham Ibn Al-Kalbi – The Book of
Idols. Translated by Nabih Amin Faris. Princeton University
Press, pg. 21–22
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"Muhammad," Encyclopedia of Islam
and the Muslim world
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^
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a
b
See:
- Holt (1977a), p.57
- Lapidus (2002), pp 0.31 and
32
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^
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a
b
Ann Goldman, Richard Hain, Stephen
Liben (2006), p. 212
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Watt (1974) p. 231
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Jean-Louis Déclais, Names of the
Prophet,
Encyclopedia of the Quran
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^
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a
b
c
Uri Rubin, Muhammad,
Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
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Ernst (2004), p. 80
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Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007).
"Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Retrieved September 24, 2013.
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Living Religions: An
Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997,
page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.
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Quran 17:106
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Rippin,
Andrew (2005).
Muslims: their religious beliefs and practices.
p. 45.
ISBN 978-0-415-34888-1.
Retrieved 15 June 2011.
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Clinton
Bennett (1998).
In search of Muhammad. Continuum International
Publishing Group. pp. 18–19.
ISBN 978-0-304-70401-9.
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Francis
E. Peters (1994).
Muhammad and the origins of Islam. SUNY Press.
p. 261.
ISBN 978-0-7914-1876-5.
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a
b
Watt (1953), p.xi
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Reeves (2003), pp. 6–7
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S. A. Nigosian(2004), p. 6
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Donner (1998), p. 132
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Watt (1953), p.xv
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Lewis (1993), pp. 33–34
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Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed. (2005). Berkshire
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Further reading
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Andrae, Tor (2000). Mohammed: The Man and His Faith.
Dover.
ISBN 0-486-41136-2.
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Berg, Herbert (ed) (2003). Method and Theory in the Study
of Islamic Origins. E. J. Brill.
ISBN 90-04-12602-3.
-
Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad. Oxford University
Press.
ISBN 0-19-287605-8.
-
Hamidullah, Muhammad (1998). The Life and Work of the
Prophet of Islam. (s.n.)(Islamabad: Islamic Research
Institute).
ISBN 969-8413-00-6.
-
Motzki, Harald, ed. (2000). The Biography of Muhammad:
The Issue of the Sources (Islamic History and Civilization:
Studies and Texts, Vol. 32). Brill.
ISBN 90-04-11513-7.
- Musa, A. Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The
Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, New York:
Palgrave, 2008
-
Rubin, Uri (1995). The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of
Muhammad as Viewed by the Early Muslims (A Textual Analysis).
Darwin Press.
ISBN 0-87850-110-X.
-
Schimmel, Annemarie (1985). And Muhammad is His
Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety.
The University of North Carolina Press.
ISBN 0-8078-4128-5.
-
Stillman, Norman (1975). The Jews of Arab Lands: a
History and Source Book. Jewish Publication Society of
America.
ISBN 0-8276-0198-0.
- Spencer, Robert (2006).
The Truth About Muhammad. Regnery Publishing, USA.
ISBN 978-1-59698-028-0.
External links
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