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Homeopathy
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Homeopathy
i//
(also spelled homoeopathy or homœopathy; from the Greek
hómoios-
ὅμοιος-
"like-" + páthos
πάθος
"suffering") is a system of
alternative medicine created in 1796 by
Samuel Hahnemann, based on his doctrine of
like cures like, according to which a substance that causes the
symptoms of a disease in healthy people will cure similar symptoms in
sick people.[1]
Homeopathic remedies are found to be no more than a
placebo,[2]
and homeopathy is widely considered a
pseudoscience.[3][4][5][6][7]
Hahnemann believed that the underlying causes of disease were
phenomena that he termed miasms, and that homeopathic remedies
addressed these. The remedies are prepared by
repeatedly diluting a chosen substance in alcohol or distilled
water, followed by forceful striking on an elastic body.[8]
Dilution usually continues well past the point where no molecules of the
original substance remains.[9]
Homeopaths select remedies by consulting reference books known as
repertories, and by considering the totality of the patient's
symptoms, personal traits, physical and psychological state, and life
history.[10]
The scientific community regards homeopathy as nonsense,[11]
quackery[12][13][14]
or a sham,[15]
and homeopathic practice has been criticized as unethical.[16]
The axioms of homeopathy are long refuted[17]
and lack any biological plausibility.[18]
Although some
clinical trials produce positive results,[19][20]
systematic reviews reveal that this is because of chance, flawed
research methods, and
reporting bias.[21][22][23][24]
The postulated mechanisms of action of homeopathic remedies are not only
scientifically implausible[21][25][26][27]
but precluded by the laws of physics.[28]
History
1857 painting by
Alexander Beydeman showing historical figures and
personifications of homeopathy observing the brutality of
medicine of the 19th century
Historical context
Homeopaths have asserted that
Hippocrates, in about 400 BC, "perhaps originated homeopathy" when
he prescribed a small dose of
mandrake root – which in larger doses produced mania – to treat
mania itself;[29]
in the 16th century the pioneer of pharmacology
Paracelsus declared that small doses of "what makes a man ill also
cures him."[30]
Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843) gave homeopathy its name and expanded
its principles in the late 18th century. At that time, mainstream
medicine used methods like
bloodletting and purging, and administered complex mixtures, such as
Venice treacle, which was made from 64 substances including opium,
myrrh, and viper's flesh.[31]
These treatments often worsened symptoms and sometimes proved fatal.[32][33]
Hahnemann rejected these practices – which had been extolled for
centuries[34] –
as irrational and inadvisable;[35]
instead, he advocated the use of single drugs at lower doses and
promoted an immaterial,
vitalistic view of how living organisms function, believing that
diseases have
spiritual, as well as physical causes.[36]
Hahnemann's
concept
The term "homeopathy" was coined by Hahnemann and first appeared in
print in 1807.[37]
Hahnemann conceived of homeopathy while translating a medical
treatise by the Scottish physician and chemist
William Cullen into German. Being skeptical of Cullen's theory
concerning
cinchona's use for curing
malaria,
Hahnemann ingested some of the bark specifically to investigate what
would happen. He experienced fever, shivering and
joint pain: symptoms similar to those of malaria itself. From this,
Hahnemann came to believe that all effective drugs produce symptoms in
healthy individuals similar to those of the diseases that they treat, in
accord with the "law of similars" that had been proposed by ancient
physicians.[38]
An account of the effects of eating cinchona bark noted by
Oliver Wendell Holmes, and published in 1861, failed to reproduce
the symptoms Hahnemann reported.[39]:128
Hahnemann's law of similars is therefore a postulate rather than
a true
law of nature.[40]
Subsequent scientific work shows that cinchona cures malaria because
it contains
quinine,
which kills the
Plasmodium falciparum parasite that causes the disease; the
mechanism of action is unrelated to the symptoms of
cinchonism.[41]
Homeopathic "provings"
Hahnemann began to test what effects substances produced in humans, a
procedure that would later become known as "homeopathic proving". These
tests required subjects to test the effects of ingesting substances by
clearly recording all of their symptoms as well as the ancillary
conditions under which they appeared.[42]
A collection of provings was published in 1805, and a second collection
of 65 remedies appeared in his book, Materia Medica Pura, in
1810.[43]
Since Hahnemann believed that large doses of drugs that caused
similar symptoms would only aggravate illness, he advocated extreme
dilutions of the substances; he devised a technique for making dilutions
that he believed would preserve a substance's therapeutic properties
while removing its harmful effects.[9]
Hahnemann believed that this process aroused and enhanced "the
spirit-like medicinal powers of the crude substances".[44]
He gathered and published a complete overview of his new medical system
in his 1810 book,
The Organon of the Healing Art, whose 6th edition, published in
1921, is still used by homeopaths today.[45]
A homeopathic remedy prepared from
marsh tea: the "15C" dilution shown here exceeds the
Avogadro constant, so contains no trace of the original
herb.
Miasms and disease
In
The Organon of the Healing Art, Hahnemann introduced the concept
of "miasms" as "infectious principles" underlying chronic disease.[46]
Hahnemann associated each miasm with specific diseases, and thought that
initial exposure to miasms causes local symptoms, such as skin or
venereal diseases; if however these symptoms were suppressed by
medication, the cause went deeper and began to manifest itself as
diseases of the internal organs.[47]
Homeopathy maintains that treating diseases by directly opposing their
symptoms, as is sometimes done in conventional medicine, is ineffective
because all "disease can generally be traced to some latent,
deep-seated, underlying chronic, or inherited tendency".[48]
The underlying imputed miasm still remains, and deep-seated ailments can
be corrected only by removing the deeper disturbance of the vital force.[49]
Hahnemann originally presented only three miasms, of which the most
important was psora (Greek for "itch"), described as being
related to any itching diseases of the skin, supposed to be derived from
suppressed
scabies,
and claimed to be the foundation of many further disease conditions.
Hahnemann believed psora to be the cause of such diseases as
epilepsy,
cancer,
jaundice,
deafness, and
cataracts.[50]
Since Hahnemann's time, other miasms have been proposed, some replacing
one or more of psora's proposed functions, including
tuberculosis and
cancer
miasms.[47]
The law of susceptibility implies that a negative state of mind can
attract hypothetical disease entities called "miasms" to invade the body
and produce symptoms of diseases.[51][dead
link] Hahnemann rejected the notion of a disease as
a separate thing or invading entity, and insisted it was always part of
the "living whole".[52]
Hahnemann coined the expression "allopathic
medicine", which was used to pejoratively refer to traditional
Western medicine.[53]
Hahnemann's miasm theory remains disputed and controversial within
homeopathy even in modern times. In 1978,
Anthony Campbell, then a consultant physician at the Royal London
Homeopathic Hospital, criticised statements by
George Vithoulkas claiming that
syphilis, when treated with antibiotics, would develop into
secondary and tertiary syphilis with involvement of the central nervous
system. This conflicts with scientific studies, which indicated
penicillin treatment produces a complete cure of syphilis in more
than 90% of cases.[54]
Campbell described this as "a thoroughly irresponsible statement that
could mislead an unfortunate layman into refusing orthodox treatment".
The theory of miasms has been criticized as an explanation developed
by Hahnemann to preserve the system of homeopathy in the face of
treatment failures, and for being inadequate to cover the many hundreds
of sorts of diseases, as well as for failing to explain disease
predispositions, as well as
genetics, environmental factors, and the unique disease history of
each patient.[55]:148-9
19th century: rise to popularity and early criticism
Homeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in the 19th century. Dr.
John Franklin Gray (1804–1882) was the first practitioner of
homeopathy in the United States, beginning in 1828 in
New York City. The first homeopathic schools opened in 1830, and
throughout the 19th century dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared
in Europe and the United States.[56]
By 1900, there were 22 homeopathic colleges and 15,000 practitioners in
the United States.[57]
Because medical practice of the time relied on ineffective and often
dangerous treatments, patients of homeopaths often had better outcomes
than those of the doctors of the time.[58]
Homeopathic remedies, even if ineffective, would almost surely cause no
harm, making the users of homeopathic remedies less likely to be killed
by the treatment that was supposed to be helping them.[45]
The relative success of homeopathy in the 19th century may have led to
the abandonment of the ineffective and harmful treatments of
bloodletting and purging and to have begun the move towards more
effective, science-based medicine.[33]
One reason for the growing popularity of homeopathy was its apparent
success in treating people suffering from infectious disease epidemics.[59]
During 19th century epidemics of diseases such as
cholera,
death rates in homeopathic hospitals were often lower than in
conventional hospitals, where the treatments used at the time were often
harmful and did little or nothing to combat the diseases.[60]
From its inception, however, homeopathy was criticized by mainstream
science.
Sir John Forbes, physician to
Queen Victoria, said in 1843 that the extremely small doses of
homeopathy were regularly derided as useless, "an outrage to human
reason".[61]
James Young Simpson said in 1853 of the highly diluted drugs: "No
poison, however strong or powerful, the billionth or decillionth of
which would in the least degree affect a man or harm a fly."[62]
19th-century American physician and author
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. was also a vocal critic of homeopathy and
published an essay in 1842 entitled Homœopathy, and its kindred
delusions.[39]
The members of the French Homeopathic Society observed in 1867 that some
of the leading homeopathists of Europe not only were abandoning the
practice of administering infinitesimal doses but were also no longer
defending it.[63]
The last school in the U.S. exclusively teaching homeopathy closed in
1920.[45]
Revival
in the 20th century
According to
Paul Ulrich Unschuld, the
Nazi regime in Germany were fascinated by homeopathy, and spent
large sums of money on researching its mechanisms, but – as ever –
without gaining a positive result. Unschuld further argues that
homeopathy never subsequently took root in the
United States, but remained more deeply established in European
thinking.[64]
In the United States the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938
(sponsored by
Royal Copeland, a
Senator from
New
York and homeopathic physician) recognized homeopathic remedies as
drugs. In the 1950s, there were only 75 pure homeopaths practicing in
the U.S.[65]
However, by the mid to late 1970s, homeopathy made a significant
comeback and sales of some homeopathic companies increased tenfold.[66]
Greek homeopath
George Vithoulkas performed a "great deal of research to update the
scenarios and refine the theories and practice of homeopathy" beginning
in the 1970s, and it was revived worldwide;[67][68]
in Brazil during the 1970s and in Germany during the 1980s.[69]
The medical profession started to integrate such ideas in the 1990s[70]
and mainstream pharmacy chains recognized the business potential of
selling homeopathic remedies.[71]
Bruce Hood has argued that the increased popularity of homeopathy in
recent times may be due to the comparatively long consultations
practitioners are willing to give their patients, and to an irrational
preference for "natural" products which people think are the basis of
homeopathic remedies.[12]
Remedies and
treatment
Homeopathic remedy Rhus toxicodendron, derived from
poison ivy.
a preparation made from D dilutions of dangerous materials
like botulism, E-coli, thymus gland of unspecified origin,
pneumonia, pseudomona, proteus, salmonella, scarlet fever,
staph, strep and tuberculosis bacteria. Ethanol is listed as
being redundantly diluted in alcohol.
Homeopathic practitioners rely on two types of reference when
prescribing remedies:
materia medica and repertories. A homeopathic materia medica
is a collection of "drug pictures", organised alphabetically by
"remedy," that describes the symptom patterns associated with individual
remedies. A homeopathic repertory is an index of disease symptoms that
lists remedies associated with specific symptoms.[72]
Homeopathy uses many animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic substances
in its remedies. Examples include
arsenicum album (arsenic oxide), natrum muriaticum (sodium
chloride or table salt),
Lachesis muta (the venom of the
bushmaster snake),
opium,
and thyroidinum (thyroid
hormone). Homeopaths also use treatments called "nosodes" (from the
Greek nosos, disease) made from diseased or pathological products
such as fecal, urinary, and respiratory discharges, blood, and tissue.[73]
Homeopathic remedies prepared from healthy specimens are called
"sarcodes".
Some modern homeopaths have considered more esoteric bases for
remedies, known as "imponderables" because they do not originate from a
substance, but from
electromagnetic energy presumed to have been "captured" by alcohol
or
lactose. Examples include
X-rays[74]
and
sunlight.[75]
Today, about 3,000 different remedies are commonly used in homeopathy.[citation
needed] Some homeopaths also use techniques that
are regarded by other practitioners as controversial. These include
"paper remedies", where the substance and dilution are written on pieces
of paper and either pinned to the patients' clothing, put in their
pockets, or placed under glasses of water that are then given to the
patients, as well as the use of
radionics to prepare remedies. Such practices have been strongly
criticised by classical homeopaths as unfounded, speculative, and
verging upon magic and superstition.[76][77]
Preparation
Mortar and pestle used for grinding insoluble solids,
including quartz and oyster shells, into homeopathic
remedies
In producing remedies for diseases, homeopaths use a process called
"dynamisation" or "potentisation", whereby a substance is diluted with
alcohol or
distilled water and then vigorously shaken by 10 hard strikes
against an elastic body in a process homeopaths call "succussion".[8][78]
Hahnemann advocated using substances that produce symptoms like those of
the disease being treated, but found that undiluted doses intensified
the symptoms and exacerbated the condition, sometimes causing dangerous
toxic reactions. He therefore specified that the substances be diluted,
due to his belief that succussion activated the "vital energy" of the
diluted substance[79]
and made it stronger. To facilitate succussion, Hahnemann had a
saddle-maker construct a special wooden striking board covered in
leather on one side and stuffed with horsehair.[80][81]
Insoluble solids, such as
quartz
and oyster
shell, are diluted by grinding them with lactose ("trituration").
Dilutions
Three
logarithmic potency scales are in regular use in homeopathy.
Hahnemann created the "centesimal" or "C scale", diluting a substance by
a factor of 100 at each stage. The centesimal scale was favored by
Hahnemann for most of his life. A 2C dilution requires a substance to be
diluted to one part in 100, and then some of that diluted solution
diluted by a further factor of 100. This works out to one part of the
original substance in 10,000 parts of the solution.[82]
A 6C dilution repeats this process six times, ending up with the
original substance diluted by a factor of 100−6=10−12
(one part in one trillion or 1/1,000,000,000,000). Higher dilutions
follow the same pattern. In homeopathy, a solution that is more dilute
is described as having a higher potency, and more dilute substances are
considered by homeopaths to be stronger and deeper-acting remedies.[83]
The end product is often so diluted as to be indistinguishable from the
dilutant (pure water, sugar or alcohol).[9][84][85]
There is also a decimal potency scale (notated as "X" or "D") in which
the remedy is diluted by a factor of 10 at each stage.[86]
Hahnemann advocated 30C dilutions for most purposes (that is,
dilution by a factor of 1060).[8]
In Hahnemann's time, it was reasonable to assume the remedies could be
diluted indefinitely, as the concept of the atom or molecule as the
smallest possible unit of a chemical substance was just beginning to
be recognized. The greatest dilution reasonably likely to contain even
one molecule of the original substance is 12C.
Critics and advocates of homeopathy alike commonly attempt to
illustrate the dilutions involved in homeopathy with analogies.[87]
Hahnemann is reported to have joked that a suitable procedure to deal
with an epidemic would be to empty a bottle of poison into
Lake Geneva, if it could be succussed 60 times.[88][89]
Another example given by a critic of homeopathy states that a 12C
solution is equivalent to a "pinch of salt in both the North and South
Atlantic Oceans",[88][89]
which is approximately correct.[90]
One-third of a
drop of some original substance diluted into all the water on earth
would produce a remedy with a concentration of about 13C.[91][87][92]
A popular homeopathic treatment for the
flu
is a 200C dilution of duck liver, marketed under the name
oscillococcinum. As there are only about 1080 atoms
in the entire
observable universe, a dilution of one molecule in the observable
universe would be about 40C. Oscillococcinum would thus require 10320
more universes to simply have one molecule in the final substance.[93]
The high dilutions characteristically used are often considered to be
the most controversial and implausible aspect of homeopathy.[94]
Dilution debate
Not all homeopaths advocate extremely high dilutions. Remedies at
potencies below 4X are considered an important part of homeopathic
heritage.[95]
Many of the early homeopaths were originally doctors and generally
used lower dilutions such as "3X" or "6X", rarely going beyond "12X".
The split between lower and higher dilutions followed ideological lines.
Those favoring low dilutions stressed
pathology and a strong link to conventional medicine, while those
favoring high dilutions emphasised vital force, miasms and a
spiritual interpretation of disease.[96][97]
Some products with such relatively lower dilutions continue to be sold,
but like their counterparts, they have not been conclusively
demonstrated to have any effect beyond that of a
placebo.[98][99]
Provings
A homeopathic proving is the method by which the profile of a
homeopathic remedy is determined.[100]
At first Hahnemann used undiluted doses for provings, but he later
advocated provings with remedies at a 30C dilution,[8]
and most modern provings are carried out using ultradilute remedies in
which it is highly unlikely that any of the original molecules remain.[101]
During the proving process, Hahnemann administered remedies to healthy
volunteers, and the resulting symptoms were compiled by observers into a
"drug picture". The volunteers were observed for months at a time and
made to keep extensive journals detailing all of their symptoms at
specific times throughout the day. They were forbidden from consuming
coffee, tea, spices, or wine for the duration of the experiment; playing
chess was also prohibited because Hahnemann considered it to be "too
exciting", though they were allowed to drink beer and encouraged to
exercise in moderation. After the experiments were over, Hahnemann made
the volunteers take an oath swearing that what they reported in their
journals was the truth, at which time he would interrogate them
extensively concerning their symptoms.
Provings have been described as important in the development of the
clinical trial, due to their early use of simple control groups,
systematic and quantitative procedures, and some of the first
application of
statistics in medicine.[102]
The lengthy records of self-experimentation by homeopaths have
occasionally proven useful in the development of modern drugs: For
example, evidence that
nitroglycerin might be useful as a treatment for
angina was discovered by looking through homeopathic provings,
though homeopaths themselves never used it for that purpose at that
time.[103]
The first recorded provings were published by Hahnemann in his 1796
Essay on a New Principle.[104]
His Fragmenta de Viribus (1805)[105]
contained the results of 27 provings, and his 1810 Materia Medica
Pura contained 65.[106]
For
James Tyler Kent's 1905 Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica,
217 remedies underwent provings and newer substances are continually
added to contemporary versions.
Though the proving process has superficial similarities with clinical
trials, it is fundamentally different in that the process is subjective,
not
blinded, and modern provings are unlikely to use pharmacologically
active levels of the substance under proving.[107]
As early as 1842, Holmes noted the provings were impossibly vague, and
the purported effect was not repeatable among different subjects.[39]
Physical, mental, and emotional state examination; repertories
Homeopathic repertory by James Tyler Kent
Homeopaths generally begin with detailed examinations of their
patients' histories, including questions regarding their physical,
mental and emotional states, their life circumstances and any physical
or emotional illnesses. The homeopath then attempts to translate this
information into a complex formula of mental and physical symptoms,
including likes, dislikes, innate predispositions and even body type.[108]
From these symptoms, the homeopath chooses how to treat the patient.
A compilation of reports of many homeopathic provings, supplemented with
clinical data, is known as a "homeopathic materia medica". But
because a practitioner first needs to explore the remedies for a
particular symptom rather than looking up the symptoms for a particular
remedy, the "homeopathic repertory", which is an index of symptoms,
lists after each symptom those remedies that are associated with it.
Repertories are often very extensive and may include data extracted from
multiple sources of materia medica. There is often lively debate
among compilers of repertories and practitioners over the veracity of a
particular inclusion.
The first symptomatic index of the homeopathic materia medica
was arranged by Hahnemann. Soon after, one of his students,
Clemens von Bönninghausen, created the Therapeutic Pocket Book,
another homeopathic repertory.[109]
The first such homeopathic repertory was Georg Jahr's Symptomenkodex,
published in German (1835), which was then first translated to English
(1838) by Constantine Hering as the Repertory to the more
Characteristic Symptoms of Materia Medica. This version was less
focused on disease categories and would be the forerunner to Kent's
later works.[73][110]
It consisted of three large volumes. Such repertories increased in size
and detail as time progressed.
Some diversity in approaches to treatments exists among homeopaths.
"Classical homeopathy" generally involves detailed examinations of a
patient's history and infrequent doses of a single remedy as the patient
is monitored for improvements in symptoms, while "clinical homeopathy"
involves combinations of remedies to address the various symptoms of an
illness.[67]
Homeopathic pills
Homeopathic pills are made from an inert substance (often sugars,
typically lactose), upon which a drop of liquid homeopathic preparation
is placed.[111][112]
"Active"
ingredients
The list of ingredients seen on remedies may confuse consumers into
believing the product actually contains those ingredients. According to
normal homeopathic practice, remedies are prepared starting with
active ingredients that are often serially diluted to the point
where the finished product no longer contains any biologically "active
ingredients" as that term is normally defined.
James Randi and the
10:23 campaign groups have demonstrated the lack of active
ingredients in homeopathic products by taking large overdoses.[113]
None of the hundreds of demonstrators in the UK, Australia, New Zealand,
Canada and the US were injured and "no one was cured of anything,
either".[114]
While the lack of active compounds is noted in most homeopathic
products, there are some exceptions such as
Zicam Cold
Remedy, which is marketed as an "unapproved homeopathic" product.[115]
It contains a number of highly diluted ingredients that are listed as
"inactive ingredients" on the label. Some of the homeopathic ingredients
used in the preparation of Zicam are galphimia glauca,[116]
histamine dihydrochloride (homeopathic name, histaminum
hydrochloricum),[117]
luffa operculata,[118]
and sulfur.
Although the product is marked "homeopathic", it does contain two
ingredients that are only "slightly" diluted:
zinc acetate (2X = 1/100 dilution) and
zinc gluconate (1X = 1/10 dilution),[115]
which means both are present in a concentration that contains
biologically active ingredients. In fact, they are strong enough to have
caused some people to lose their sense of smell,[119]
a condition termed
anosmia.
This illustrates why taking a product marked "homeopathic", especially
an
overdose,[113]
can still be dangerous because it may contain biologically active
ingredients, though as discussed previously, most homeopathic
preparations contain no active ingredients. Because the manufacturers of
Zicam label it as a homeopathic product (despite the relatively high
concentrations of active ingredients), it is exempted from FDA
regulation by the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994
(DSHEA).
Related treatments and practices
Isopathy
Isopathy is a therapy derived from homeopathy invented by Johann
Joseph Wilhelm Lux in the 1830s. Isopathy differs from homeopathy in
general in that the remedies, known as "nosodes", are made up either
from things that cause the
disease
or from products of the disease, such as
pus.[73][120]
Many so-called "homeopathic vaccines" are a form of isopathy.[121]
Flower remedies
Flower remedies can be produced by placing flowers in water and
exposing them to sunlight. The most famous of these are the
Bach flower remedies, which were developed by the physician and
homeopath
Edward Bach. Although the proponents of these remedies share
homeopathy's vitalist world-view and the remedies are claimed to act
through the same hypothetical "vital force" as homeopathy, the method of
preparation is different. Bach flower remedies are prepared in "gentler"
ways such as placing flowers in bowls of sunlit water, and the remedies
are not succussed.[122]
There is no convincing scientific or clinical evidence for flower
remedies being effective.[123]
Veterinary use
The idea of using homeopathy as a treatment for other animals, termed
"veterinary homeopathy", dates back to the inception of homeopathy;
Hahnemann himself wrote and spoke of the use of homeopathy in animals
other than humans.[124]
The FDA has not approved homeopathic products as veterinary medicine in
the U.S. In the UK,
veterinary surgeons who use homeopathy may belong to the
Faculty of Homeopathy and/or to the British Association of
Homeopathic Veterinary Surgeons. Animals may be treated only by
qualified veterinary surgeons in the UK and some other countries.
Internationally, the body that supports and represents homeopathic
veterinarians is the International Association for Veterinary
Homeopathy. The use of homeopathy in veterinary medicine is
controversial; the little existing research on the subject is not of a
high enough scientific standard to provide reliable data on efficacy.[125]
Other studies have also found that giving animals placebos can play
active roles in influencing pet owners to believe in the effectiveness
of the treatment when none exists.[125]
The UK's
Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DeFRA) has
adopted a robust position against use of "alternative" pet remedies
including homeopathy.[126]
Electrohomeopathy
Electrohomeopathy was a 19th-century practice combining homeopathy
with electric treatment.
Evidence
Homeopathy
Claims |
Proponents claim that illnesses can be treated with
specially prepared extreme dilutions of a substance that
produces symptoms similar to the illness. Homeopathic remedies
rarely contain any atom or molecule of the substance in the
remedy. |
Related scientific
disciplines |
Chemistry,
Medicine |
Year proposed |
1807 |
Original proponents |
Samuel Hahnemann |
Subsequent proponents |
Organizations:
Boiron,
Heel,
Miralus Healthcare,
Nelsons,
Zicam
Individuals:
Deepak Chopra,
Paul Herscu,
Robin Murphy,
Rajan Sankaran,
Luc De Schepper,
Jan Scholten,
Jeremy Sherr,
Dana Ullman,
George Vithoulkas |
Pseudoscientific concepts |
The low concentration of homeopathic remedies, which often lack even
a single
molecule of the diluted substance,[111]
has been the basis of questions about the effects of the remedies since
the 19th century. Modern advocates of homeopathy have proposed a concept
of "water
memory", according to which water "remembers" the substances mixed
in it, and transmits the effect of those substances when consumed. This
concept is inconsistent with the current understanding of matter, and
water memory has never been demonstrated to have any detectable effect,
biological or otherwise.[127][128]
Pharmacological research has found instead that stronger effects of
an active ingredient come from
higher, not lower doses.
Outside of the CAM community, scientists have long regarded
homeopathy as a sham[15]
or – as
Bruce Hood puts it – as "supernatural quackery".[12]
There is an overall absence of sound statistical evidence of therapeutic
efficacy, which is consistent with the lack of any
biologically plausible pharmacological
agent or mechanism.[25]
Abstract concepts within theoretical physics have been invoked to
suggest explanations of how or why remedies might work, including
quantum entanglement,[129]
the
theory of relativity and
chaos theory. However, the explanations are offered by
nonspecialists within the field, and often include speculations that are
incorrect in their application of the concepts and not supported by
actual experiments.[55]:255-6
Several of the key concepts of homeopathy conflict with fundamental
concepts of physics and chemistry.[27]
For instance, quantum entanglement is not possible as humans and other
animals are far too large to be affected by quantum effects, and
entanglement is a delicate state which rarely lasts longer than a
fraction of a second. In addition, while entanglement may result in
certain aspects of individual subatomic particles acquiring each other's
quantum states, this does not mean the particles will mirror or
duplicate each other, or cause health-improving transformations.[130]
Plausibility
The extreme dilutions used in homeopathic preparations often leave
none of the original substance in the final product. The modern
mechanism proposed by homeopaths,
water memory, is considered implausible in that short-range order in
water only persists for about 1
picosecond.[131]
Existence of a
pharmacological effect in the absence of any true active ingredient
is inconsistent with the observed
dose-response relationships characteristic of therapeutic drugs[132]
(whereas placebo effects are non-specific and unrelated to
pharmacological activity[133]).
The proposed rationale for these extreme dilutions – that the water
contains the "memory"
or "vibration" from the diluted ingredient – is counter to the laws of
chemistry and
physics,
such as the
law of mass action.[131]
Analysis shows proposed mechanisms for homeopathy are precluded from
having any effect by the laws of physics and physical chemistry.[28]
High dilutions
The extremely high dilutions in homeopathy preclude a biologically
plausible mechanism of action. Homeopathic remedies are often diluted to
the point where there are no molecules from the original solution left
in a dose of the final remedy.[134]
Homeopaths contend that the methodical dilution of a substance,
beginning with a 10% or lower solution and working downwards, with
shaking after each dilution, produces a therapeutically active remedy,
in contrast to therapeutically inert water. Since even the longest-lived
noncovalent structures in liquid water at room temperature are
stable for only a few
picoseconds,[135]
critics have concluded that any effect that might have been present from
the original substance can no longer exist.[136]
No evidence of stable clusters of water molecules was found when
homeopathic remedies were studied using
nuclear magnetic resonance.[137]
Furthermore, since water will have been in contact with millions of
different substances throughout its history, critics point out that
water is therefore an extreme dilution of almost any conceivable
substance. By drinking water one would, according to this
interpretation, receive treatment for every imaginable condition.[138]
For comparison, ISO 3696: 1987 defines a standard for water used in
laboratory analysis; this allows for a contaminant level of ten parts
per billion, 4C in homeopathic notation. This water may not be kept in
glass as contaminants will leach out into the water.[139]
Practitioners of homeopathy hold that higher dilutions — described as
being of higher potency[140]
— produce stronger medicinal effects.[141]
This idea is inconsistent with the observed
dose-response relationships of conventional drugs, where the effects
are dependent on the concentration of the active ingredient in the body.[132]
This dose-response relationship has been confirmed in myriad experiments
on organisms as diverse as nematodes,[142]
rats,[143]
and humans.[144]
Physicist
Robert L. Park, former executive director of the
American Physical Society, is quoted as saying,
"since the least amount of a substance in a solution is one molecule,
a 30C solution would have to have at least one molecule of the original
substance dissolved in a minimum of
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
[or 1060] molecules of water. This would require a container
more than 30,000,000,000 times the size of the Earth."[145]
Park is also quoted as saying that, "to expect to get even one
molecule of the 'medicinal' substance allegedly present in 30X pills, it
would be necessary to take some two billion of them, which would total
about a thousand tons of lactose plus whatever impurities the lactose
contained".[145]
The laws of chemistry state that there is a limit to the dilution
that can be made without losing the original substance altogether.[111]
This limit, which is related to
Avogadro's number, is roughly equal to homeopathic potencies of 12C
or 24X (1 part in 1024).[87][145][146]
Scientific tests run by both the
BBC's
Horizon and
ABC's
20/20 programs were unable to differentiate homeopathic
dilutions from
water,
even when using tests suggested by homeopaths themselves.[81][147]
Efficacy
The efficacy of homeopathy has been in dispute since its inception.
One of the earliest
double blind studies concerning homeopathy was sponsored by the
British government during World War II in which volunteers tested the
efficacy of homeopathic remedies against diluted mustard gas burns.[148]
No individual preparation has been unambiguously shown by research to
be different from placebo.[25][149]
The
methodological quality of the
primary research was generally low, with such problems as weaknesses
in
study design and reporting, small
sample size, and
selection bias. Since better quality trials have become available,
the evidence for efficacy of homeopathy preparations has diminished; the
highest-quality trials indicate that the remedies themselves exert no
intrinsic effect.[20][24][55]:206
A review conducted in 2010 of all the pertinent studies of "best
evidence" produced by the
Cochrane Collaboration concluded that "the most reliable evidence –
that produced by Cochrane reviews – fails to demonstrate that
homeopathic medicines have effects beyond placebo."[150]
Publication bias and other methodological issues
The fact that individual randomized controlled trials have given
positive results is not in contradiction with an overall lack of
statistical evidence of efficacy. A small proportion of randomized
controlled trials inevitably provide false-positive outcomes due to the
play of chance: a
"statistically significant" positive outcome is commonly adjudicated
when the probability of it being due to chance rather than a real effect
is no more than 5%—a level at which about 1 in 20 tests can be expected
to show a positive result in the absence of any therapeutic effect.[151]
Furthermore, trials of low methodological quality (i.e. ones which have
been inappropriately designed, conducted or reported) are prone to give
misleading results. In a systematic review of the methodological quality
of randomized trials in three branches of alternative medicine, Linde et
al. highlighted major weaknesses in the homeopathy sector, including
poor randomization.[152]
A related issue is
publication bias: researchers are more likely to submit trials that
report a positive finding for publication, and journals prefer to
publish positive results.[153][154][155][156]
Publication bias has been particularly marked in
complementary and alternative medicine journals, where few of the
published articles (just 5% during the year 2000) tend to report
null results.[157]
Regarding the way in which homeopathy is represented in the medical
literature, a systematic review found signs of bias in the publications
of clinical trials (towards negative representation in mainstream
medical journals, and vice-versa in complementary and alternative
medicine journals), but not in reviews.[20]
Positive results are much more likely to be false if the prior
probability of the claim under test is low.[156]
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of efficacy
Both
meta-analyses, which statistically combine the results of several
randomized controlled trials, and other
systematic reviews of the literature are essential tools to
summarize evidence of therapeutic efficacy.[158]
Early systematic reviews and meta-analyses of trials evaluating the
efficacy of homeopathic remedies in comparison with placebo more often
tended to generate positive results, but appeared unconvincing overall.[159]
In particular, reports of three large meta-analyses warned readers that
firm conclusions could not be reached, largely due to methodological
flaws in the primary studies and the difficulty in controlling for
publication bias.[19][22][23]
The positive finding of one of the most prominent of the early
meta-analyses, published in
The
Lancet in 1997 by Linde et al.,[23]
was later reframed by the same research team, who wrote:
The evidence of bias [in the primary studies] weakens the
findings of our original meta-analysis. Since we completed our
literature search in 1995, a considerable number of new homeopathy
trials have been published. The fact that a number of the new
high-quality trials ... have negative results, and a recent update
of our review for the most "original" subtype of homeopathy
(classical or individualized homeopathy), seem to confirm the
finding that more rigorous trials have less-promising results. It
seems, therefore, likely that our meta-analysis at least
overestimated the effects of homeopathic treatments.[24]
In 2002, a systematic review of the available systematic reviews
confirmed that higher-quality trials tended to have less positive
results, and found no convincing evidence that any homeopathic remedy
exerts clinical effects different from placebo.[25]
In 2005,
The
Lancet medical journal published a meta-analysis of 110
placebo-controlled homeopathy trials and 110 matched medical trials
based upon the
Swiss government's
Program for Evaluating Complementary Medicine, or PEK. The study
concluded that its findings were compatible with the notion that the
clinical effects of homeopathy are placebo effects.[21]
A 2006 meta-analysis of six trials evaluating homeopathic treatments
to reduce
cancer
therapy side-effects following
radiotherapy and
chemotherapy found that there was "insufficient evidence to support
clinical efficacy of homeopathic therapy in cancer care".[160]
A 2007 systematic review of homeopathy for children and adolescents
found that the evidence for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and
childhood diarrhea was mixed. No difference from placebo was found for
adenoid vegetation, asthma, or upper respiratory tract infection.
Evidence was not sufficient to recommend any therapeutic or preventative
intervention, and the delay in medical treatment may be harmful to the
patient.[161]
In 2012, a systematic review evaluating evidence of homeopathy's
possible
adverse effects concluded that "homeopathy has the potential to harm
patients and consumers in both direct and indirect ways".[162]
One of the reviewers,
Edzard Ernst, supplemented the article on his blog, writing: "I have
said it often and I say it again: if used as an alternative to an
effective cure, even the most 'harmless' treatment can become
life-threatening."[163]
The
Cochrane Library found insufficient clinical evidence to evaluate
the efficacy of homeopathic treatments for asthma[164]
dementia,[165]
or for the use of homeopathy in induction of labor.[166]
Other researchers found no evidence that homeopathy is beneficial for
osteoarthritis,[167]
migraines
[168][169][170]
or
delayed-onset muscle soreness.[67]
Health organisations such as the UK's
National Health Service,[171]
the
American Medical Association,[172]
and the
FASEB[136]
have issued statements of their conclusion that there is "no
good-quality evidence that homeopathy is effective as a treatment for
any health condition."[171]
Clinical studies of the medical efficacy of homeopathy have been
criticised by some homeopaths as being irrelevant because they do not
test "classical homeopathy".[173]
There have, however, been a number of clinical trials that have tested
individualized homeopathy. A 1998 review[174]
found 32 trials that met their inclusion criteria, 19 of which were
placebo-controlled and provided enough data for meta-analysis. These 19
studies showed a pooled odds ratio of 1.17 to 2.23 in favor of
individualized homeopathy over the placebo, but no difference was seen
when the analysis was restricted to the methodologically best trials.
The authors concluded "that the results of the available randomized
trials suggest that individualized homeopathy has an effect over
placebo. The evidence, however, is not convincing because of
methodological shortcomings and inconsistencies." Jay Shelton, author of
a book on homeopathy, has stated that the claim assumes without evidence
that classical, individualized homeopathy works better than nonclassical
variations.[55]:209
In a 2012 article published in the
Skeptical Inquirer,[175]
Edzard Ernst reviewed the publications of the research group that has
published most of the clinical studies of homeopathic treatment from
2005 to 2010. A total of 11 articles, published in both conventional and
alternative medical journals, describe three randomized clinical trials
(one article), prospective cohort studies without controls (seven
articles) and comparative cohort studies with controls (three articles).
The diseases include a wide range of conditions from knee surgery,
eczema, migraine, insomnia to "any condition of elderly patients".
Ernst's evaluation found numerous flaws in the design, conduct and
reporting of the clinical studies. Examples include: little detail of
the actual homeopathic treatment administered, misleading presentation
of controls (comparison of homeopathic plus conventional treatment with
conventional treatment, but presented as homeopathic versus conventional
treatment); and similar data in multiple articles. He concluded that the
misinterpreted weak data made the homeopathy appear to have clinical
effects which can be attributed to bias or confounding, and that the
"casual reader can be seriously misled".[175]
Explanations of perceived effects
Science offers a variety of explanations for how homeopathy may
appear to cure diseases or alleviate symptoms even though the remedies
themselves are inert:[55]:155-167
- The
placebo effect — the intensive consultation process and
expectations for the homeopathic preparations may cause the effect
- Therapeutic effect of the consultation — the care, concern, and
reassurance a patient experiences when opening up to a compassionate
caregiver can have a positive effect on the patient's well-being
- Unassisted
natural healing — time and the body's ability to heal without
assistance can eliminate many diseases of their own accord
- Unrecognized treatments — an unrelated food, exercise,
environmental agent, or treatment for a different ailment, may have
occurred
-
Regression toward the mean — since many diseases or conditions
are cyclical, symptoms vary over time and patients tend to seek care
when discomfort is greatest; they may feel better anyway but because
the timing of the visit to the homeopath they attribute improvement
to the remedy taken
- Non-homeopathic treatment — patients may also receive standard
medical care at the same time as homeopathic treatment, and the
former is responsible for improvement
- Cessation of unpleasant treatment — often homeopaths recommend
patients stop getting medical treatment such as surgery or drugs,
which can cause unpleasant side-effects; improvements are attributed
to homeopathy when the actual cause is the cessation of the
treatment causing side-effects in the first place, but the
underlying disease remains untreated and still dangerous to the
patient.
Effects in other biological systems
While some articles have suggested that homeopathic solutions of high
dilution can have statistically significant effects on organic processes
including the growth of
grain,[176]
histamine release by
leukocytes,[177]
and enzyme
reactions, such evidence is disputed since attempts to replicate
them have failed.[178][179][180][181][182]
In 1987, French immunologist
Jacques Benveniste submitted a paper to the journal
Nature while working at
INSERM. The paper purported to have discovered that
basophils, a type of
white blood cell, released
histamine when exposed to a homeopathic dilution of
anti-immunoglobulin E antibody. The journal editors, sceptical of the
results, requested that the study be replicated in a separate
laboratory. Upon replication in four separate laboratories the study was
published. Still sceptical of the findings, Nature assembled an
independent investigative team to determine the accuracy of the
research, consisting of Nature editor and physicist Sir
John Maddox, American scientific fraud investigator and chemist
Walter Stewart, and sceptic
James Randi. After investigating the findings and methodology of the
experiment, the team found that the experiments were "statistically
ill-controlled", "interpretation has been clouded by the exclusion of
measurements in conflict with the claim", and concluded, "We believe
that experimental data have been uncritically assessed and their
imperfections inadequately reported."[128][183][184]
James Randi stated that he doubted that there had been any conscious
fraud, but that the researchers had allowed "wishful thinking" to
influence their interpretation of the data.[183]
Ethics and safety
The provision of homeopathic remedies has been described as
unethical.[16]
Michael Baum, Professor Emeritus of Surgery and visiting Professor
of Medical Humanities at
University College London (UCL), has described homoeopathy as a
"cruel deception".[185]
Edzard Ernst, the first Professor of
Complementary Medicine in the United Kingdom and a former
homeopathic practitioner,[186][187][188]
has expressed his concerns about
pharmacists who violate their ethical code by failing to provide
customers with "necessary and relevant information" about the true
nature of the homeopathic products they advertise and sell:
- "My plea is simply for honesty. Let people buy what they want,
but tell them the truth about what they are buying. These treatments
are biologically implausible and the clinical tests have shown they
don't do anything at all in human beings. The argument that this
information is not relevant or important for customers is quite
simply ridiculous."[189]
Patients who choose to use homeopathy rather than
evidence-based medicine risk missing timely diagnosis and effective
treatment of serious conditions such as cancer.[161][190]
Adverse reactions
Some homeopathic remedies involve poisons such as Belladonna,
arsenic, and poison ivy which are highly diluted in the homeopathic
remedy, only in rare cases are the original ingredients present at
detectable levels. This may be due to improper preparation or
intentional low dilution. Serious adverse effects such as seizures and
death have been reported or associated with some homeopathic remedies.[162][191]
Instances of
arsenic poisoning have occurred after use of arsenic-containing
homeopathic preparations.[192]
Zicam Cold remedy Nasal Gel, which contains 2X (1:100)
zinc gluconate, reportedly caused a small percentage of users to
lose their sense of smell;[193]
340 cases were settled out of court in 2006 for 12
million U.S. dollars.[194]
In 2009, the FDA advised consumers to stop using three discontinued cold
remedy products manufactured by Zicam because it could cause permanent
damage to users' sense of smell.[195]
Zicam was launched without a
New Drug Application (NDA) under a provision in the FDA's Compliance
Policy Guide called "Conditions Under Which Homeopathic Drugs May be
Marketed" (CPG 7132.15), but the FDA warned Zicam via a
Warning Letter that this policy does not apply when there is a
health risk to consumers.[196]
Lack of efficacy
The lack of convincing scientific evidence supporting its efficacy[197]
and its use of remedies without active ingredients have led to
characterizations as pseudoscience and quackery,[198][199][200][201]
or, in the words of a 1998 medical review, "placebo therapy at best and
quackery at worst."[202]
The Chief Medical Officer for England,
Dame Sally Davies, has stated that homeopathic remedies are
"rubbish" and do not serve as anything more than placebos.[203]
Jack Killen, acting deputy director of the
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, says
homeopathy "goes beyond current understanding of chemistry and physics."
He adds: "There is, to my knowledge, no condition for which homeopathy
has been proven to be an effective treatment."[197]
Ben Goldacre says that homeopaths who misrepresent scientific
evidence to a
scientifically illiterate public, have "...walled themselves off
from academic medicine, and critique has been all too often met with
avoidance rather than argument."[157]
Homeopaths often prefer to ignore
meta-analyses in favour of
cherry picked positive results, such as by promoting a particular
observational study (one which Goldacre describes as "little more
than a customer-satisfaction survey") as if it were more informative
than a series of randomized controlled trials.[157]
Referring specifically to homeopathy, the
British House of Commons Science and Technology Committee has
stated:
In the Committee's view, homeopathy is a placebo treatment and
the Government should have a policy on prescribing placebos. The
Government is reluctant to address the appropriateness and
ethics of prescribing placebos to patients, which usually relies
on some degree of patient deception. Prescribing of placebos is
not consistent with informed patient choice - which the
Government claims is very important - as it means patients do
not have all the information needed to make choice meaningful.
Beyond ethical issues and the integrity of the
doctor-patient relationship, prescribing pure placebos is
bad medicine. Their effect is unreliable and unpredictable and
cannot form the sole basis of any treatment on the NHS.[26]
The
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine of the
United States'
National Institutes of Health states:
Homeopathy is a controversial topic in complementary medicine
research. A number of the key concepts of homeopathy are not
consistent with fundamental concepts of chemistry and physics.
For example, it is not possible to explain in scientific terms
how a remedy containing little or no active ingredient can have
any effect. This, in turn, creates major challenges to rigorous
clinical investigation of homeopathic remedies. For example, one
cannot confirm that an extremely dilute remedy contains what is
listed on the label, or develop objective measures that show
effects of extremely dilute remedies in the human body. [204]
In
lieu of standard medical treatment
On clinical grounds, patients who choose to use homeopathy in
preference to normal medicine risk missing timely diagnosis and
effective treatment, thereby worsening the outcomes of serious
conditions.[161][190][205][206]
Critics of homeopathy have cited individual cases of patients of
homeopathy failing to receive proper treatment for diseases that could
have been easily diagnosed and managed with conventional medicine and
who have died as a result[207][208]
and the "marketing practice" of criticizing and downplaying the
effectiveness of mainstream medicine.[157][208]
Homeopaths claim that use of conventional medicines will "push the
disease deeper" and cause more serious conditions, a process referred to
as "suppression".[209]
Some homeopaths (particularly those who are non-physicians) advise their
patients against
immunisation.[205][210][211]
Some homeopaths suggest that vaccines be replaced with homeopathic
"nosodes", created from biological materials such as pus, diseased
tissue, bacilli from sputum or (in the case of "bowel nosodes") feces.[212]
While Hahnemann was opposed to such preparations, modern homeopaths
often use them although there is no evidence to indicate they have any
beneficial effects.[213][214]
Cases of homeopaths advising against the use of anti-malarial drugs have
been identified.[206][215][216]
This puts visitors to the tropics who take this advice in severe danger,
since homeopathic remedies are completely ineffective against the
malaria parasite.[206][215][216][217]
Also, in one case in 2004, a homeopath instructed one of her patients to
stop taking conventional medication for a heart condition, advising her
on 22 June 2004 to "Stop ALL medications including homeopathic",
advising her on or around 20 August that she no longer needed to take
her heart medication, and adding on 23 August, "She just cannot take ANY
drugs – I have suggested some homeopathic remedies ... I feel confident
that if she follows the advice she will regain her health." The patient
was admitted to hospital the next day, and died eight days later, the
final diagnosis being "acute heart failure due to treatment
discontinuation".[218][219]
In 1978,
Anthony Campbell, then a consultant physician at The Royal London
Homeopathic Hospital, criticised statements made by
George Vithoulkas to promote his homeopathic treatments. Vithoulkas
stated that
syphilis, when treated with antibiotics, would develop into
secondary and tertiary syphilis with involvement of the
central nervous system. Campbell described this as a thoroughly
irresponsible statement that could mislead an unfortunate layperson into
refusing conventional medical treatment. This claim echoes the idea that
treating a disease with external medication used to treat the symptoms
would only drive it deeper into the body and conflicts with scientific
studies, which indicate that penicillin treatment produces a complete
cure of syphilis in more than 90% of cases.[54]
A 2006 review by W. Steven Pray of the College of Pharmacy at
Southwestern Oklahoma State University recommends that pharmacy
colleges include a required course in unproven medications and
therapies, that ethical dilemmas inherent in recommending products
lacking proven safety and efficacy data be discussed, and that students
should be taught where unproven systems such as homeopathy depart from
evidence-based medicine.[220]
In an article entitled "Should We Maintain an Open Mind about
Homeopathy?"[221]
published in the
American Journal of Medicine, Michael Baum and Edzard Ernst –
writing to other physicians – wrote that "Homeopathy is among the worst
examples of faith-based medicine... These axioms [of homeopathy] are not
only out of line with scientific facts but also directly opposed to
them. If homeopathy is correct, much of physics, chemistry, and
pharmacology must be incorrect...".
In 2013, Sir
Mark Walport, the new UK
Government Chief Scientific Adviser and head of the
Government Office for Science, had this to say about homeopathy: "My
view scientifically is absolutely clear: homoeopathy is nonsense, it is
non-science. My advice to ministers is clear: that there is no science
in homoeopathy. The most it can have is a placebo effect – it is then a
political decision whether they spend money on it or not."[222]
His predecessor, Professor Sir
John Beddington, referring to his views on homeopathy being
"fundamentally ignored" by the Government, said: "The only one [view
being ignored] I could think of was homoeopathy, which is mad. It has no
underpinning of scientific basis. In fact all of the science points to
the fact that it is not at all sensible. The clear evidence is saying
this is wrong, but homoeopathy is still used on the NHS."[223]
Regulation
and prevalence
Hampton House, the former site of
Bristol Homeopathic Hospital, one of two homeopathic
hospitals run by the
NHS. [26]
Homeopathy is fairly common in some countries while being uncommon in
others; is highly regulated in some countries and mostly unregulated in
others. It is practised worldwide and professional qualifications and
licences are needed in most countries.[224]
Regulations vary in Europe depending on the country. In some countries,
there are no specific legal regulations concerning the use of
homeopathy, while in others, licences or degrees in conventional
medicine from accredited universities are required. In Germany, to
become a homeopathic physician, one must attend a three-year training
program, while France, Austria and Denmark mandate licences to diagnose
any illness or dispense of any product whose purpose is to treat any
illness.[224]
Some homeopathic treatment is covered by the public health service of
several European countries, including France, the United Kingdom,
Denmark, and
Luxembourg. In other countries, such as Belgium, homeopathy is not
covered. In Austria, the public health service requires scientific proof
of effectiveness in order to reimburse medical treatments and homeopathy
is listed as not reimbursable,[225]
but exceptions can be made;[226]
private health insurance policies sometimes include homeopathic
treatment.[224]
The
Swiss government, after a 5-year trial, withdrew homeopathy and four
other complementary treatments in 2005, stating that they did not meet
efficacy and cost-effectiveness criteria,[227]
but following a referendum in 2009 the five therapies are to be
reinstated for a further 6-year trial period from 2012.[228]
A May 2012 editorial in the Swiss Medical Weekly by David Martin
Shaw described a 2011 government report on homeopathy. He described it
as "a case study of research misconduct":
- "This paper analyses the report and concludes that it is
scientifically, logically and ethically flawed. Specifically, it
contains no new evidence and misinterprets studies previously
exposed as weak; creates a new standard of evidence designed to make
homeopathy appear effective; and attempts to discredit randomised
controlled trials as the gold standard of evidence. Most
importantly, almost all the authors have conflicts of interest,
despite their claim that none exist. If anything, the report proves
that homeopaths are willing to distort evidence in order to support
their beliefs, and its authors appear to have breached Swiss
Academies of Arts and Sciences principles governing scientific
integrity."[229]
Medicines at a Homeopathy pharmacy in
Varanasi, India
The
Indian government recognises homeopathy as one of its national
systems of medicine,[230]
it has established
AYUSH or the
Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and
Homoeopathy under the
Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.[231]
The
Central Council of Homoeopathy was established in 1973 to monitor
higher education in Homeopathy, and
National Institute of Homoeopathy in 1975.[232]
A minimum of a recognised diploma in homeopathy and registration on a
state register or the Central Register of Homoeopathy is required to
practice homeopathy in India.[233]
In the
United Kingdom, MPs inquired into homeopathy to assess the
Government's policy on the issue, including funding of homeopathy under
the
National Health Service and government policy for licensing
homeopathic products. The decision by the
House of Commons Science and Technology Committee follows a written
explanation from the Government in which it told the select committee
that the licensing regime was not formulated on the basis of scientific
evidence. "The three elements of the licensing regime (for homeopathic
products) probably lie outside the scope of the ... select committee
inquiry, because government consideration of scientific evidence was not
the basis for their establishment," the Committee said. The inquiry
sought written evidence and submissions from concerned parties.[234][235]
In February 2010 the House of Commons Science and Technology
Committee concluded that:
... the NHS should cease funding homeopathy. It also concludes
that the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency ( MHRA)
should not allow homeopathic product labels to make medical
claims without evidence of efficacy. As they are not medicines,
homeopathic products should no longer be licensed by the MHRA.
The Committee concurred with the Government that the evidence
base shows that homeopathy is not efficacious (that is, it does
not work beyond the placebo effect) and that explanations for
why homeopathy would work are scientifically implausible.
The Committee concluded – given that the existing scientific
literature showed no good evidence of efficacy – that further
clinical trials of homeopathy could not be justified.
In the Committee's view, homeopathy is a placebo treatment
and the Government should have a policy on prescribing placebos.
The Government is reluctant to address the appropriateness and
ethics of prescribing placebos to patients, which usually relies
on some degree of patient deception. Prescribing of placebos is
not consistent with informed patient choice – which the
Government claims is very important – as it means patients do
not have all the information needed to make choice meaningful.
Beyond ethical issues and the integrity of the doctor-patient
relationship, prescribing pure placebos is bad medicine. Their
effect is unreliable and unpredictable and cannot form the sole
basis of any treatment on the NHS. [26]
The Committee also stated:
We conclude that placebos should not be routinely prescribed on
the NHS. The funding of homeopathic hospitals – hospitals that
specialise in the administration of placebos – should not
continue, and NHS doctors should not refer patients to
homeopaths. [236]
In July 2010 the newly appointed UK
Secretary of State for Health deferred to local NHS on funding
homeopathy. A nineteen-page document details the Government´s response,
and it states that "our continued position on the use of homeopathy
within the NHS is that the local NHS and clinicians, rather than
Whitehall, are best placed to make decisions on what treatment is
appropriate for their patients - including complementary or alternative
treatments such as homeopathy - and provide accordingly for those
treatments." The response also stated that "the overriding reason for
NHS provision is that homeopathy is available to provide patient
choice".[237]
by February 2011 only one third of PCTs still funded homeopathy.[238]
In 2012 in the United Kingdom,
Derby University dropped its homeopathy program, and the
University of Westminster ceased enrolling new homeopathy students.
Salford University had dropped its homeopathy program the previous
year.[239]
In 2013 the
UK Advertising Standards Authority concluded that the
Society of Homeopaths were targeting vulnerable ill people and
discouraging the use of essential medical treatment while making
misleading claims of efficacy for homeopathic products.[240]
Public opposition
Mock "overdosing" on homeopathic preparations by individuals or
groups in "mass suicides" have become more popular since
James Randi began taking entire bottles of homeopathic sleeping
pills before lectures.[241][242][243][244]
In 2010 The Merseyside Skeptics Society from the United Kingdom launched
the
10:23 campaign encouraging groups to publicly overdose as groups. In
2011 the 10:23 campaign expanded and saw sixty-nine groups participate,
fifty-four submitted videos.[245]
In April 2012, at the Berkeley SkeptiCal conference, over 100 people
participated in a mass overdose, taking caffea cruda which is
supposed to treat sleeplessness.[246][247]
The non-profit, educational organizations
Center for Inquiry (CFI) and the associated
Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) have petitioned the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), criticizing
Boiron
for misleading labeling and advertising of
Oscillococcinum. CFI in Canada is calling for persons that feel they
were harmed by homeopathic products to contact them.[248]
In August 2011,[249]
a
class action lawsuit was filed[249]
against Boiron on behalf of "all California residents who purchased
Oscillo at any time within the past four years." The lawsuit charges
that it "is nothing more than a sugar pill," "despite falsely
advertising that it contains an active ingredient known to treat flu
symptoms."[250]
CBC
News reporter
Erica Johnson for Marketplace conducted an investigation on
the homeopathy industry in Canada, her findings were that it is "based
on flawed science and some loopy thinking".
Center for Inquiry (CFI) Vancouver skeptics participated in a mass
overdose outside an emergency room in Vancouver, B.C., taking entire
bottles of "medications" that should have made them sleepy, nauseous or
dead, after 45 minutes of observation no ill effects were felt. Johnson
asked homeopaths and company representatives about cures for cancer and
vaccine claims. All reported positive results but none could offer any
science backing up their statements, only that "it works". Johnson was
unable to find any evidence that homeopathic preparations contain any
active ingredient. Analysis performed at the
University of Toronto's chemistry department found that the active
ingredient is so small "it is equivalent to 5 billion times less than
the amount of aspirin... in a single pellet". Belladonna and ipecac
"would be indistinguishable from each other in a
blind test."[251][252]
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External links
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